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English-Reading-Hand-Book

目录

介绍

A(或 An)和 The 两种冠词的基本含义及其使用方法

“A(或数字)+量词+of+被修饰的名词”及其类似结构

About 兼带 Around 和 Round 的用法分类及注意事项

Above用法及其分类理解

Across 的用法和按英语思维的理解

After 的搭配用法及注意事项

Against 用法及注意事项

Ahead 的用法特点

All 的主要用法

Alone 的用法和注意点

Along 的用法以及对其常用短语的理解

And 用法中几个值得注意的问题

Any 和 Some的用法及其差异

Apart 及 Apart From 的用法

As 的主要用法和判别

At 的基本含义及其搭配用法分类

Away 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Back 的搭配及其引申用法的理解

Be 的九种基本用法和判别

Because, Because of, Due to, Owing to, Thanks to 和 For 表示原因用法比较

Before 用法和几个在意义上不要混淆的问题

Behind 的用法及其常用短语

Being 的用法和注意点

Below 的用法

Beneath 和 Under, Below 用法比较

Beside 和 Besides的用法及注意事项

Between 和 Among 的用法辨异

Beyond 的搭配用法及理解

Both 的用法及注意点

But 及其搭配关系的用法和判别

By 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Can 的主要用法

Could 的主要用法

Do 的用法判别

Down 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Each 和 Every 的用法

-ed 结尾的或不规则动词的过去分词用法和判别

Either 和 Either… or 的用法

Enough 的用法

Ever 的用法

-ever 构成的合成词的用法和判别 Whoever, Whichever, Whatever, Whenever, Wherever, However

Except 和介词 But 用法比较

First 的用法

For 的用法及其短语分类理解

Forth 的搭配用法

Forward(s) 的搭配用法

From 的搭配用法及其短语分类理解

Hardly 和 Scarcely 的用法及注意点

Have (或 Has) 的用法

How, How many, How much, How long, How far,How fast, How often 等用法

If 的用法

In 和 Into 的用法及其短语分类理解

inf. 动词不定式的用法和判别

-ing 现在分词和动名词的用法和判别

Inside 和 Outside 的用法

Instead of和 In place of 的用法

It 的用法和判别

Least(包括作“最不…”讲)的用法

Less(包括作“较不…”讲)的用法

Lest, In case 和 For fear that 引出从句的用法

Like 的搭配用法

Little 和 A Little 以及 Few 和 A Few 用法差异

Many 和 Much 的用法

May 的主要用法

Might 的主要用法

More 以及形容词和副词比较级的用法及注意点

Most 以及形容词和副词最高级的用法和注意点

Must 的主要用法

名词或其短语作前置定语及其新发展—夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语

Near 的用法

Need 和 Dare 的用法及注意点

Neither, Nor 和 Neither… nor… 的用法

Never 用法

No matter how (或 what, where, who 等)疑问词的用法

None, Nobody (或 No one), Not one 和 Nothing 用法异同

Not 和 No 用法差别

Of 的主要用法及其固定短语的分类理解

Off 的用法及其固定短语的分类理解和判断

On 和 Upon 的用法及其固定短语的分类理解和判断

Once 的用法

One 和 Ones 的用法

Or, Or Else, Else 的用法

Other 和 Another 用法差异

Other than 的用法

Otherwise 用法

Ought 的用法

Out 及 Out of 的各自搭配用法的理解和判断

Over 及其搭配用法分类理解和判断

代词有时出现在所代的名词之前

形容词型物主代词和名词型物主代词的用法辨异

Provided (that) 和 Providing (that) 的用法和判别

Rather 和 Fairly 的用法差异(联系近义词 Quite, Pretty)

Rather than 的用法和注意点

Right 用法

’s 的用法

Should 用法

Since 的用法和判别

So 的主要用法

So that 和 so (或 Such)… that 引导从句的用法和判别

Soon, No sooner… than 和 As soon as 的用法

Spite(主要是 In spite of)用法

Still 的用法和注意点

That 和 Those 的基本用法和判别

“比较级 + than”的用法和注意点

There be 结构及 there exists 等相类似的句子

Though 和 Although 的用法和注意点

Through 及其搭配的动词短语用法和判断

Throughout 的搭配用法

Time (Times) 的用法和注意点

To 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Together 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Too 的多种用法和判别

Toward(s) 的搭配用法及其分类理解

"Used + 带 to 的不定式","be used + to + 名词" 和 "be used + 带 to

Under 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Until 和 Till 的用法和理解

Up 的用法及其动词短语的分类理解和判断

Way 的主要用法及注意点

What 的用法和判别

When 的用法和判别

Where 的用法和判断

Whether 的用法和判断

Which 的用法和判断

While 的基本用法及判别

Who 和 Whom 的用法

Whose 的用法

Why的用法

Will 的主要用法

With 的各种搭配用法及分类理解

Within 的搭配用法

Without 的搭配用法

Would 的用法

Yet 的用法

动词时态

被动态和几个值得注意的问题

句子的种类

句子成分 (Sentence Components)

谓语在形式上和主语协调的十四种情况

介词短语在句中的用法和判别

注意:“介词+介词短语、副词或形容词”结构

宾语补(足)语及注意点

主语补(足)语及注意点

条件和假设

虚拟语气的用法

省 略 (Ellipsis)

同位语及同位语从句的表示法和判别

插入语及插入句用法

倒装语序和成分分割

数字或数量大小、数的增减、倍数和分数表示法

语法—逻辑判断—正确理解

新编英语阅读手册

叶永昌 主编

内容提要

本书开门见山,以英语关联词和常用词为引子,综合地讨论它们多种语法功能和搭配用法,使读者通过大量实例扎实地理解和掌握。

对于过去大多数只能死记硬背的“动词+副词或介词+……”的短语改为按英语思维形象化地去理解。这种“英语形象联想教学法”及有关内容荣获天津市优秀教学成果二、三等奖。书中均以动词短语中的介词或副词为引子,通过细致分类汇总了它们和有关动词搭配时的动词短语用法。例如,书中仅副词out的功能性用法分类就有10多种,并且各有许多举例汇总,于是形成形象和联想,语感油然而生。

本书还将编者荣获天津市优秀科研成果三等奖的“英语前置定语的新发展一一夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语”介绍给读者,使读者开阔思路。

本书可供大学、中学师生阅读英语材料和学习英语时参考;也可供大学生参加四、六级英语考试,参加研究生入学考试或托福考试前参考学习;还可供广大英语爱好者自学参考。

前言

本书是在作者原著《科技英语阅读手册》基础上增删编纂的。作者原著《科技英语阅读手册》印数高达130万册,深受读者欢迎。本书定名为《新编英语阅读手册》,一定程度上保留了作者原著特色,但更重要的是增加了作者近年来在全国各地所做的200多场学术讲座中的精彩内容。本书突出了下列几点:

(一)

对于英语口语中较为常用的“动词+副词或介词(如 about,at,in,on,off,out,over,up 等)”短语动词,全部按其搭配用法和特定的分类含义分门别类集中举例列出,并将过去一般只能死记硬背的固定短语改为按英语思维形象化地去理解。这种“英语形象联想教学法”及有关内容荣获天津市优秀教学成果二、三等奖。例如在“out 的搭配用法和理解”专题内,集中列出 beat out the fire(扑灭或打灭火),blow out the candle(吹灭蜡烛),crush the cigarette(掐灭香烟),stamp the fire(跺灭火),turn out(或off)the light(熄灯、旋灭灯或关灯)等许多个短语动词,使读者明白,副词 out 表示各种方式“灭火”中的“灭”,于是对于The fire was out [“火灭”的静态] 及 The fire went out [“火灭”的动态] 便迎刃而解。本书对于上述功能性的副词或介词,都按其各种功能性用法分类举例汇总。例如“各种穿戴”多数用 on。有时用 into 或 in;各种脱衣一般用 off。但 on 还可表示“继续下去”之意,便又单开一个分类,将 go on(走下去,进行下去),drive on(继续开车),read on(读下去),say on(说下去),work on(继续工作下去),write on(写下去)等几十个类似用法列为一类。on 或 off 的其它 10 多种功能性用法也都是以举例汇总形式集中介绍,于是形成“联想”,语感油然而生。作者已在全国 20 多个省市举办学术讲座 200 多次,以推广这种提高英语语感颇为有效的教学方法。有位南昌大学的学生在致作者的贺年卡上写道:“……我正在读您的书,多处有‘茅塞顿开,猛然醒悟’的感觉,特此向您表示感谢。”另有一名湖南师范大学的学生在听完讲座后立即上讲台请求和作者拥抱,接着又请求第二次拥抱,台下众多学生热烈鼓掌,场面令人难忘。

(二)

将作者荣获天津市优秀科研成果三等奖的“名词作前置定语的新发展——夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语”有关内容编入书中,向读者展示理解英语搭配的新思路。例如 Clinton State of Union Address(克林顿的国情演讲),Right to Life Rally(维护生存权的集会)等。

(三)

语法讲解一般用句型、结构或常用关联词的搭配用法等来介绍,以便达到“开门见山,简明易懂”的效果。举例尽量用浅易的词汇,并尽可能体现新时代特色。例如,在用例中出现:信息技术产业、第三产业、电子商务、数字高清晰度电视、多媒体电脑、笔记本电脑、掌上电脑、光电脑、因特网、网上聊天、网上购物或交易、访问网站、网民、网吧、电子邮件、语音邮件、软件开发公司、移动电话(或手机)、寻呼机、可视电话、航天飞机、载人宇宙飞船、试管婴儿、经济型轿车、知识经济、网络经济、克隆技术、WT0(世贸组织)、GDP(国内生产总值)、电视电话会议、计算机病毒、自由贸易区、出口加工区、经济特区、中关村科技园区、高架路、立交桥、内(或外)环路、信息高速公路、上海南京路第一商业步行街、东方明珠电视塔、计算机病毒、中华世纪坛、星级饭店、世界财富论坛、服装展览、房地产市场、开发大西北、科教兴国、家庭服务公司等。

(四)

目录分为按中心词即关联词和常用词的英语字母顺序的目录以及传统的英语语法目录,以便读者能方便迅速地查到所需的参考内容。

本书由天津大学外语系叶永昌教授主编。参加部分编写工作的有:(按姓氏笔划为序)毛继光、丛理、田文娟、叶爱华、叶盛、刘文彬、刘茜红、向荣、吴茜、李宝毅、忻晓燕、姜洪、顾礼芬、姚家庆、张纹祯、张廉明、逯荣、陶钢、黄嬿、曹青、崔春利等。

本手册可供大学、中学学生学习英语时参考;也可供高中生考大学,大学生考四、六级英语或参加研究生入学英语考试或托福考试前参考学习。本书还可供广大的英语爱好者自学时参考。

本书在编写中,缺点错误在所难免,希望广大读者批评指正,以便进一步修改。

A(或 An)和 The 两种冠词的基本含义及其使用方法

一、冠词的基本含义

顾名思义,英语冠词通常位于所说的名词的最前面。英语冠词分为:不定冠词 a,an 和定冠词 the。

I. a,an 一个,其中 an 用于其后跟着的词或缩写词的第一个音是元音的条件下。例如:

an old scientist 一位老科学家;

an interesting book 一本有趣的书;

an hour 一小时;

get an M. A. 获得文科硕士学位;

an A student 一位成绩优秀的学生等。

不定冠词 a 和 an 表示“一个(任何一个)”,常用于系动词后的单数名词(可数名词作表语)前,表示某人、某物属于哪个类别,用于泛指某人、某物或指某一类人或某一类物中任何一个。这时强调的是类别,而不是个数。例如:

He is a worker. 他是(一位)工人。(言外之意,他不是学生、农民。)

This is an axe. 这是一把斧子。(言外之意,这不是锤子、钉子。)

He is a test tube baby. 他是试管婴儿。(言外之意,他不是一般的婴儿。)

定冠词 the 表示特指的某一个或某一些,而不是任何一个或任何一些。现在我们介绍 a 和 the 的基本用法:

There is a cloning technology laboratory here. The laboratory was set up last year. 这里有一个克隆技术实验室。该实验室是去年建成的。

II. 对于定冠词的用法必须注意下列四点:

A. 某可数名词单数首次出现时,通常先用不定冠词。第二次再提到时就改用定冠词。例如:

Boys often like dogs very much. The animals can listen to their masters.

男孩常常喜欢狗。这种动物能听从主人。(名词 animals 是第一次出现。由于它指前面的 dogs 而言,故加 the。但 dogs 系泛指,故不用定冠词。)

B. 如果有关各方(讲话者、听讲者、作者、读者等)都知道指何人、何物而言,尽管第一次出现,仍用定冠词。例如:

She will go to the computer center. 她将去计算机中心。(句中“计算机中心”必须是有关各方都知道的“那个计算机中心”。)

Silicon does not occur in the free state in nature, and very few people have seen the pure substance. 硅在自然界不以游离状态存在,很少有人看到过纯硅。(“游离状态”是共知的,故前加 the,而后面的 pure substance 虽是第一次出现,但是指的就是前面出现的 silicon(硅),故必须用 the,以表示特指。译文干脆译为“纯硅”,正体现了这个特指。)

C. the 是特指某一个或某一些的,在一定上下文中可不必译出“这个”或“这些”。上面两句中三个 the 都没有译出。

D. 专有名词前面的 the 表示独一无二的事物,如 sun(太阳)等词前面的 the,包括海洋、江河、山脉等专门名称和形容词最高级前面的 the,都不必把 the 译出,按汉语习惯用法处理即可。例如:

the Republic of France 法兰西共和国(注:单个名词作国家名称一般不用加 the。例如:China 中国,Japan 日本等。)

the Pacific太平洋,the Mediterranean 地中海,the Roeky Mountains 落基山脉等。

the moon 月亮,the Mars 火星等。

This is the most important problem. 这是最重要的问题。

二、冠词的实用价值

Ⅰ. 用 a 和 one 有时意思有差别:a 指“一个”、“任何一个”,而 one 侧重数字,即是“一个”,不是“两个”、“三个”。

The roof will collapse at a blow. 这屋顶一打准垮。(意思是不必推、踢或用机器砸等。)

The roof will collapse at one blow. 这屋顶打一下准垮。(意思是不需要两下、三下。)

He will stay here for more than a week. 他将在这里呆一周多时间。(如一周零三天等。)

They will stay here for more than one week. 他们将在这里逗留不止一周的时间。(恐怕呆两周、三周等。)

II. 用或不用冠词,意义上有差别:

A. 物质名词不用冠词;若用冠词,意思就不同或具体化。

glass 玻璃;a glass 一只玻璃杯;the glass 这只玻璃杯

tin 白铁;a tin 一个白铁罐;the tin 这个白铁罐

iron 铁;an iron 熨斗;irons 镣铐

water 水;the water of this well 这口井的水

matter 物质;(a matter 一件事;the matter 那件事,那物质)

ice 冰;an ice 一个冰淇淋

B. 某些词或词组用或不用冠词,意思也有所不同:

experience 经验;an experience 一种经历

man 人类;(a man 一个(男)人)

Brown 勃朗(姓);The Browns 勃朗一家,勃朗夫妇

the red and white flower,红白花(一种杂色的花);the red and the white flower 红花和白花(两种花)

few books 没多少书(含有否定意味);a few books 少数几本书(虽也指数量少,但含有肯定意味)

little water 没多少水(否定意味);a little water 少许水(肯定意味)

注:注意 few 用于可数名词复数,而 little 用于不可数名词。

a kind of matter 一种物质;the kind of matter 这种物质

the number of instruments 仪表的数量;a number of instruments 一些仪表

three of us 我们中间的三个人;the three of us 我们三个人

out of question 毫无疑问;out of the question 不可能的(常作表语)

be at table (dinner,meal)在吃饭;be at the table 在桌旁

goto school 上学,goto the school 去这个学校,go to business 出差,go to a business 去一家公司

take place(事故等)发生;take the place of …代替(某人或某物)

stand in front of the car 站在车子前面(在车外);stand in the front of the car 站在车子前部(在车上)

a. They are teachers of our school. 他们是我校的教师。(指他们是学校教师的一部分。)

b. They are the teachers of our school. 他们是我校的教师(指我校教师的全体)。

a. There is room beside me. 我旁边有空地。

b. This is a room. 这是一个房间。

a. He is a student of Tianjin University. 他是天津大学的学生。

b. This is a place of a house. 这是一座宫殿式的房子。(斜体部分作前置定语。of 后的名词为单数时,前面加 a。这是一种固定结构。又如:a(或 that)giant of a man 一个(或那个)巨人般的男子汉等。

a. In case of fire, ring the alarm bell. 如遇火灾,即按警铃。

b. Take an umbrella with you in case (that) it (should) rain. 请随身带伞,以防下雨。

c. Climate is especially important in the case of our products. 就我们的产品来说。气候特别重要。

C. 抽象名词一般不用冠词;若用冠词,意思就具体化:

a. He is fond of music. 他喜欢音乐。(music 为泛指。)

b. Do you like to listen to the music. 你喜欢听这种音乐吗?(the music 为特指。)

a. They are all of age. 他们都已成年。

b. We are all of an age. 我们都是同年龄的。

D. 形容词最高级前不用 the,则作“十分…”解:

This is a most interesting book. 这是一本十分有趣的书。(比较:This is the most interesting book I have ever read. 这是我读过的最有趣的一本书。)

The chemical energy in coal and oil is the energy of greatest importance to the industrial world. 煤和石油内的化学能是工业世界十分重要的能量。

III. 利用“冠词后面一般要求有名词”来判断词类以及某些其他句子成分。

A. 用以判断名词:

When matter changes to a substance different from what it was, the change is a chemical change. 当物质变成和原来不同的物质时,该变化是化学变化。(三个 change 中,后两个 change 前有冠词,意味着后两个准是名词. )

He cannot answer this question at once, but can find the answer to it in the book. 他不能马上回答这个问题,但是能从那本书里找到问题的答案。(上句第二个 answer 前有 the,能用以判断它是名词。)

Now the building of houses is one of the important tasks. 目前,建造房屋是重要任务之一。(“the+-ing+of…”结构中,-ing 只能作名词用。)

It takes a force of about 10,000 volts to force electricity through one centimeter of air. (迫)使电流通过一厘米厚的空气层,就需要约 10,000 伏特的电动势。(两个 force,一个前面有冠词 a,必为名词,本义作“力”解;另一个前面有 to,并无冠词,必为不定式。)

They went to the play. 他们去看戏了。(句中有 the,表示 play 为名词;若无 the,则 play 为动词,与前面 to 构成不定式,句义变为:他们去玩耍了。)

B. 在冠词和它所说明的名词之间一般都有定语:

the reading-room 这个阅览室;the building materials 这些建筑材料;the operating conditions 这些操作条件;a measuring instrument 一个测量仪表(全是动名词作定语,表示用途。)

the moving water 这种流动的水;a burning candle 一支点燃着的蜡烛;the faster moving molecules 那些运动较快的分子(全是现在分词作定语)

the wasted energy 被消耗的能量;the best known chemical plant 最有名(或最熟悉)的化工厂(全是过去分词作定语)

the oil pump 这台油泵;a glass plant 一个玻璃厂;a water pump plant 一个水泵厂(名词或其词组作定语)

C. 在分析句子时冠词可为判别其他成分提供线索:

The crane is contactor controlled by operating rod. 这台起重机是通过操纵一个杆,用接触器来控制的。

初看起来,controlled by… 好像作 contactor 的定语。但由于 contactor 是可数名词,若它作表语,就必须有一个冠词 a。因为没有冠词 a,就否定了上述的理解。可以把上句谓语理解为 is controlled,而 contactor 放在过去分词前用以表示控制这台起重机的工具或手段(详见第37节 V-C 和 Ⅶ-B)。这样 一来,用不用 a 就为句子分析提供了重要的线索。后面 rod 前用了 a,也反过来说明前面的 operating 是介词 by 的宾语,而不能是 rod 的定语。

The oil and the textile industry have exceeded the plan.

石油工业和纺织工业都已超额完成计划。(谓语用复数形式,但动词前面两个 the 已说明主语是两个,只是 oil 后省略了industry。后面的 plan 前面有 the,表明 plan 不能作动词用,只能做名词。)

He is an engineer and manager. 他是工程师兼经理。(只用一个不定冠词表示一人兼两职。)

There is a watch and chain on the table. 桌上有一块安上表链的表。(若在 chain 前加 a,则变为一块表和一根表链,两者似乎没装配在一起。)

注:有时是为了避免重复而省略后面的相同冠词。例如:a man and (a) woman 一男一女;the books and papers 这些书和论文等。

D. the 后面只有形容词而无名词,则 the 使形容词名词化了,并使之代表某些人或物。

例如:the poor 穷人;the rich 富人;the former 前者;the latter 后者;the unexpected 意料不到的事等。

三、注意四个问题

I. 冠词 a 还可以作 “per每” 用:

We go on holiday twice a year(或… twice per year). 我们每年度假两次。

The car is running fifty miles an hour. (= … per hour. )汽车正以每小时五十英里速度行驶。

II. “the + 比较级,the + 比较级”句型中的 the 不是冠词,而是副词:

The higher the temperature,the more liquid evaporates. 温度越高,蒸发的液体就越多。

本句型中第一个 the 是关系副词,有 by how much 之意,第二个 the 是指示副词,有 by so much 之意。

III. 有时用“the+单数名词(可数名词)”表示全类属,意味着把这一类属和另一类属相比。

例如:

The telephone is very useful. 电话很有用。(意指与望远镜、显微镜等类属相比。)

A telephone is very useful. 电话很有用。(指任何一台电话有用,从而用这种方式来代替整个类属。)

The telephone was invented in 1876. 电话发明于1876年。

Ⅳ. 冠词不占修饰语首位的几种情况:

A. 不定冠词倒置情况:

当单数的可数名词前面的形容词又有 so,as,how,however,too 修饰时,不定冠词只能置于形容词后面;遇到 quite 和 rather 时,多半置于其后;遇到 such,many 和感叹句中的 what 时,也只能置于其后。例如:

He has obtained so precise a result. 他得到了如此精确的结果。

He is as good a soldier as he was. 他和从前一样,是一个好战士。

How fine a sight is it? 这景色有多美呢?

This is too difficult a problem. 这是个过分难的问题。

It is rather a long time since she left Tianjin. 她离开天津有较长一段时间了。

We did the experiment in quite a different way. 我们用截然不同的方法做了这个实验。

I haven’t seen such a robot before. 我从未见过这样的机器人。

Many a student speaks English well. 许多学生英语说得好。

What a beautiful subway station(it is)! 多么漂亮的地铁站!

B. 定冠词倒置情况:

定冠词遇到 all,both,quite,half,twice,double,three times 等词语时,通常就后置. 例如:

All the students watch network TV. 所有这些学生都看网络电视。

Both the answers are wrong. 这两个答案都是错的。

It is quite the contrary. 完全相反。

It is three times the size of my room. 这是我的房间大小的三倍。

I have walked half the distance. 我步行了一半的距离。

注1:如果 half,double 等词作纯粹的形容词用,则仍应置于冠词之后. 例如:

a half width 一半的宽度(注意:a half hour 等于 half an hour);the double journey 往返行程。

注2:当用 much,exactly 等词修饰 same 时,则它们位于 the same 之前。例如:

Both of them have exactly(或 much )the same properties. 这两者具有完全(或大致)相同的性质。

四、有时标题中的定冠词被省略

China soccer youth to train in cities. 中国青年足球运动员将在几个城市培训(cities 前省略 the)

China-biggest wheat producer in world. 中国是世界上最大的小麦生产国(world 前省略 the。)

New joint venture to produce hi-tech goods. 一家新合资企业准备生产高科技产品。(标题前省略不定冠词A。)

American astronaut lands on Moon. 一个美国宇航员登上月球(标题前省略 An,而 Moon 前省略 the。)

五、夹带介词短语的名词性词组有前置定语时,其中定冠词一般都不用。

例如:the careless use of gun accident 用枪不慎的事故(详见69节)

六、常见的不能使用不定冠词的普通名词

advice 劝告,equipment 设备,furniture 家具,information 信息或情报,bread 面包,corn 谷类,electricity 电,courage 勇气,bravery 勇敢,flour 面粉,grass 草,honesty 诚实,happiness 幸福,ink 墨水,intelligence 智力或情报,jewelry 珠宝,lightning 闪电,luggage 行李,laughter 笑,beer 啤酒,luck 运气,dust 灰尘,dirt 肮脏,milk 牛奶,darkness 黑暗,love 爱,peace 和平,sunshine 阳光照耀,soap 肥皂,soup 汤,toast 烤面包,thunder 雷,water 水,weather 天气,space 宇宙空间,importance 重要性,heat 热等。

请多查“现代高级英汉双解辞典”等,因为在这些辞典中不可数名词全部标出。

注:物质名词和抽象名词通常为不可数名词。病名通常也都是不可数名词。

“A(或数字)+ 量词 + of + 被修饰的名词”及其类似结构

本类型结构在英语中广泛使用。of后的名词一般不用冠词。例如:a piece of furniture 一件家具,a cake of soap 一块肥皂,two kinds of water 两种水,three cups of milk 三杯牛奶,four sheets of paper 四张纸,10,000 kilometers of high-speed roads 一万公里高速公路,a number of books一些书或好多书,five days of classes 五天课,3,000,000 bytes of memory 三百万字节的内存,a group of trees 一些树等。注意有时还可用形容词 different,various 等词代替前面的数字。例如:different new types of computers各种新型的计算机,various branches of knowledge 各方面的知识等。

当上述短语作主语时,谓语用单数还是复数,可参阅第 138 节四和五。

注:见到“the 温度、电阻等名称 + of + 度数、欧姆数等”结构,则后者为前者的同位语。例如:a pressure of three atmospheres 压强三个大气压;a volume of two cubic meters 体积 2 立方米;a resistance of five ohms 5 欧姆电阻;a total investment of two billion yuan 总投资 20 亿元等。

About 兼带 Around 和 Round 的用法分类及注意事项

一、介词兼副词 about 作“周围”、“四周”、“附近”、“身上”讲。

There is a white fence about the house. 这幢房子周围有白色篱笆。(介词短语作地点状语。)

Very few of the everyday things about us are really in pure states of matter. 我们周围的日常用物中几乎没有真正是物质纯态的。(后置定语)

All about is the white snow. 周围一切都是白雪。(副词作后置定语。)

Look about and tell me what you see. 向四周看一下,并告诉我你看见了什么。(副词和前面 look 构成固定动词短语。)

We see things moving about here and there. 我们看见物质在各处动来动去。(副词 about 和前面 moving 构成固定的动词短语。)

Nobody seemed about, so she went in. 附近似乎无人,所以她就进去了。(副词)

There is a strange smell about him. 他身上有一种怪味。(状语);

Have you any money about (或 with) you? 你身上带钱吗?(状语)

二、介词 about 和有关动词连用,表示“在某地范围内活动或动来动去”。

go about(或 around, round)…(某人)在(城)里转悠或游览,(消息、疾病)在(某地)传开,(地球)围着(太阳)转动

get about (或 around, round)…在(市区即 the downtown)转悠或游览

kick about(或 around)…在(欧洲)跑来跑去或西荡东游

a. look about(或 around,round)…在(房子或火车站)内查看或东看西看,游览(全城)[由“在市内各处看看”引申过来]

b. look about(或 around)… for… 在(房间)内到处寻找(他的钢笔等)[“look about(作副词用)for…”则作“环顾四周或在周围附近寻找(某人或某物)”讲。

三、介词 about 作“关于”或“涉及”、“从事”讲,是从本义“围绕”引申过来。

What are you talking about? 你们在谈论什么啊?(直译:你们在围绕着什么谈论啊?)

They spoke to us about their reform plan. 他们跟我们讲了关于他们的改革计划。(直译:他们围绕着改革计划给我们讲了一下。)

The question is about what to do next. (句中不定式短语 what to do next 作介词宾语。)问题涉及到下一步怎么办。(直译:问题是围绕在下一步怎么办。)

He set about writing his report. 他开始(或着手)去写他的报告。(about 仍含有“围绕”之意。)

What do you know about how industrial oxygen is produced? 关于工业氧如何生产的问题,你知道些什么呢?(介词 about 后接一个介词宾语从句。)

注:介词 about 和 on 都作“关于”讲,但前者涉及的内容较为普遍,而后者学术性气氛强些。例如:

1) a. a book about Asia 一本介绍亚洲的书

b. a book on Asia 一本研究亚洲的书

2) a. a conversation about air pollution 一次关于空气污染的谈话

b. a lecture on air pollution 一个空气污染专题讲座

四、副词 about 作“大约”、“差不多”、“左右”讲其实都是从本义“附近”、“周围”引申过来。about 常可用 almost,some,around 或 more or less代替(参阅第 149 节)

This container is about the size of a glass. 这个容器约有玻璃杯那样大。

The cordless phone weighs about 70 grams. 该无绳电话重约 70 克。

About how many video discs do you have? 你大概有多少影碟?

五、“b3(或 seem)+ about + 不定式动词…”表示“立即或正要做某事”或者“似乎立即或正要做某事”之意。

这里 about 为副词,由“大约→差不多→马上”引申过来,因此句中不再允许用作“马上”讲的 at once 或 immediately 之类的词语。例如:

She is about to speak. 她正要讲。

They seem about to start the microcomputers. 看来他们就要开动这些微电脑了。

This is a gas about to undergo further treatment. 这是一种要进一步处理的气体。(后置定语)

六、利用 about 的本义“围绕”、“附近”,在结合其搭配的动词情况下,引申到“动来动去”、“四下”、“到处”、“从事”、“涉及”等来理解下列短语动词

The little boy ran about looking for his mother. 小男孩(那时)东奔西跑寻找他的妈妈。(about 作“动来动去”、“到处”讲。这是结合它所搭配的动词由“附近”引申为“来回奔跑”。)

Look about for the credit card. 四下或到处寻找那张信用卡

They know what you are about. 他们知道你在干什么。(句中about结合其搭配的动词由“围绕…”引申到含有“从事”之意。)

a. walk about(或around)…在(房间、街道)范围内走来走去

b. take a walk about(或 around)…在(校园,即 the campus)里走走

七、下列短语中副词 about 仍含有“附近”、“周围”之意

There are a few people about. 附近有几个人。

Few people seemed about. 当时附近似乎没有多少人。

We found her about. 当时我们发现她在附近。

go a long way about 兜一大圈子,

bring about… 引起或产生(一种变化即 a change)[由“把…引到附近周围”引申过来]

come about(事故即 the accident)发生[由“…来到附近周围”引申而宋]

八、下列固定短语中副词 about 含有“到处”之意,但与有关动词搭配已引申为“随意”、“随便”,进而又发展为“乱放”、“乱扔”之意

play about(或 around, round)(孩子们)在玩耍逗趣

horse about(或 around)(他们)随便哄闹[常用进行时态]

nose about for information 到处打听信息[直译:到处嗅闻以获取信息]

leave sth. about 乱放某物

Throw (或 toss) sth. about 乱抛扔某物

order sb. about 随便或任意使唤某人

九、必须指出,表示“周围”、“到处”含义的 about,大多数可在动词短语中用 around 或 round 来代替

stand about(或 around,round)the teacher 站在老师周围

stand about(或 around)到处站或随意站着并不干活

look about(或 around,round)向四周看

run about(或 around)东奔西跑等

注:around (或 round) 还可用于表示环行动作或曲线动作,这时就不应该用 about 代替。例如:around the corner of the street 在马路拐角处,around the clock 整天(由“钟表上的时针转圈”引申过来)等。

Above 用法及其分类理解

一、介词 above 表示位置“在…以上”(若表示正中垂直的位置“在…以上”则用 over)、“数量大于…”或“价值超过…”之意

This mountain is 2,000 feet above the sea. 这座山海拔 2000 英尺。(表语。不能用 over 替代,因为山不是位于海平面的垂直方向之上。)

This pager weighs above 50 grams. 这个寻呼机重 50 多克。(状语。也可用 over 代替 above.)

His lecture is above me (=above my head = above my understanding = beyond me). 他的讲座我无法理解。(指“超过我的理解能力”而言。)

Above all, we must first clone a panda. 最重要的是我们必须首先克隆一只熊猫。(above all 也可用 above all things 或 above everything 代替。)

He may think himself above others. 他也许以为自己高人一等。(宾语补语。本句也可用另外方式表示:He may get above himself. 他也许自以为了不起。(由“他也许变成超过了自己的身价”引申过来。)

Don’t put (或 set, place) the notice above the door. 勿把通知贴在门的上方。

We must place (或 put, set) the needs of the motherland above (或 before) our own interests. 我们必须将祖国需要置于我们自己利益之上(或之前)。

He always values (或 rates) his honour above his life. 他总是看重信誉高于生命。

She is above doing such a thing. 她不至于会做这样的事。(表语。由“她或她的身份是高于做这样的事”引申过来,从中可体会出有“不屑于做某事”的意味。)

a. I thought he had risen above being late for the meeting. 我原以为他已改掉了开会迟到的毛病。(按上句方式理解。)

b. The sun is slowly rising above the sea. 太阳正在海面上方冉冉升起。(状语)

二、副词 above 作“在上面”或“在上头”讲

Our physics laboratory is just above. 我们的物理实验室就在楼上。(不是指正中垂直方向的上方。)

What was mentioned above counts for much. 上面提到的内容很有价值。(主语从句)

These new types of computers listed above are of great value。上面所列出的那些新型计算机是很有价值的。

注:上述三例句中的 above 不能用 over 代替。

三、above 作形容词用,表示“以上的”、“上述的”之意。不能用 over 代替

The above explanation will help answer this question. 上述解释将帮助答这个问题。

The above three acids are strong acids, not weak acids. 上述三种酸是强酸,不是弱酸。(如果 above 前面没有the,意思就变为“三种以上的酸”。)

What type of error is similar to the above? 哪种类型的误差和上面的相似?(形容词 above 前加 the 后名词化。)

Please look at the production order above. 请看上面生产定单。(但句中 above 为副词作后置定语。)

Across 的用法和按英语思维的理解

一、介词 across 作“横过、穿过、跨越…”讲

a. millions of schools across the world 全世界千百万个学校

b. across the years 多年以来[由“跨过这些年”引申过来]

abridge across the river 跨越这条河的一座桥

come (或 go) across…(我)穿过(房间)迎接客人[后接 to meet the guests]

come across her mind(一种新的想法即 a new idea)在她脑海中掠过[表示“她脑海中浮现一种新的想法”]

fly across the sky 飞过天空

go across… 穿过(马路即 the road 等)

hurry across the bridge to the school(某人)匆忙过桥去学校

move across… 穿过(马路等)

put more people across the river(新桥)使更多人过河

run across… 跑着穿过(马路)

sail for across the sea 远航海外(或渡洋)

send sb. across the river 送某人过河

swim across… (他)游泳过(河)、(乌云)浮游掠过(月亮)

step across the stream 一步跨过小溪

walk across… 步行穿过(花园即 the garden 等)

二、介词 across 作“在……对面”,“在……的另一边”或“与……相交叉”讲时用法汇总(实质上由“横跨……”、“从……一边到另一边”引申过来)

be across the street.(这个医院)位于街道对面

the music from across the street. 来自街道对过的乐声(across 短语作介词 from 的宾语。)

lay a stick across another one. 将一根棍子跟另一根交叉放

lie across…(一棵大树)横躺在(铁路即 the railway 等)

sit across the desk from sb. (我)隔着书桌坐在某人对面

be connected across…(伏特计即 the volt meter)跨接(一线圈即 a coil)

pass across…(这条直线即 this straight line)与(另一条直线即 another one)相交

三、介词 across 和有关动词连用,表示“偶然碰到…”时的用法举例

这时 across 表示“偶然与…相接触”,其实是由“与…相交”引申过来。

come across… 偶然碰到或偶然发现(我丢失的手表即 my lost watch)

Drop across… 偶然碰到(我的英语老师等),碰巧发现(一张旧照片等)

fall across sb. 无意中遇见某人或与某人邂逅

ran across… 偶然看到(一位老同学等),偶然发现(一张地图等)[但 run across the field 为“跑步越过田野”,而在英国英语中 run sb. across the field 则作“用车带某人越过田野”讲。]

四、副词 across 表示“过去”、“过来”或“从一边到另一边”时跟有关动词连用的短语动词举例

这实际上可理解为在一定的上下文中省略或不便于提介词 across 后面的介词宾语演变过来。例如:

a. be across at 8 某人在八点钟过来

b. The river is one kilometer across. 这条河有一公里宽。(这里 across 表示横跨宽度。)

a. come across(他)从另一边走过来

b. come across with… [俚](我)同(这些学生)涉水过来的,(她)过来提供(所需的钱或情况等)[这里 across 仍含有从一边走“过来”之意]

a. bring sb. across 带某人过去[结合上下文可加译“过河、过广场”等]

b. bring sb. across to the office 带领某人到办公室

a. get across to an island by boat 乘船摆渡(过去)到一个岛上[译文也可不必写出 across 含义“过去”两字]

b. get(v. )across to…(这条船)把(我们)摆渡(过去)到(一个岛即 an island)上;(某建议)被(我)理解[由“某建议走过一段距离到我身上”引申过来]

glance across at sb. (我)往那边的某人瞟了一眼[意译。表示“我的视线在中间要越过一段距离”]

a. go across(他)走过去[结合上下文,可理解为穿过马路或小溪等]

b. go across to…(他)走(过去)到(窗户、中公室等)

help Sb. across. 帮助某人过去[结合上下文可理解为“过马路”、“过河”等]

jump acrossa(他)跳过去[结合上下文可理解为“跳过小溪”等] 。

put… across 把(某人)送到对岸或马路对面,把(桥)跨建过河,把…讲清楚[后面还可接 to sb. ,变为“把…给某人讲清楚”]

row across 划船过去,划船过河

swim across (乌云)浮游掠过,(他们)游过去

saw a plank across 横锯一块木板[由“对一块木板从这一边锯到那一边”引申转译过来]

tear the letter across 将信撕成两半[与上句用法相似]

五、副词 across 和有关动词搭配,表示“(使)理解或领会”含义

这时 across 仍由其本义“过去”、“过来”、“从一边到另一边”引申过来

a. get… across (某人)讲清(他的建议)[由“使建议传达过去被人理解”引申过来]

b. cannot get across(我的想法即 my idea)不能被人理解

c. get… across to sb. (我)使(这个想法)被某人理解

a. put sth. across to the public(她)把(这个计划)向公众讲清楚

b. be put across to the crowd(这个想法)向群众讲明白或被群众理解

c. He put himself across (to the voters) as a suitable leader. 他向选民阐明他是一个很合适的领导者。

六、结合上下文,正确理解 across 的本义及其动词短语的引申用法

come across sb. (偶然遇见某人),其原义是“跨过某人走过来”,一般必然是较为突然的,否则就会踩人身子。后来又引申用到 come across sth. (偶然遇见某物)。如果 sth. 是一种新东西或新的现象,就可理解为“发现…”。将其中 come 改用 run,意思基本相同。在理解 A good idea came across my mind 时,仍应从本义出发即原义为“…掠过我的脑海”,然后理解为“一个好主意浮现在我脑海中”。因此,不能把 come across… 唯一地理解为“偶然碰见…”。至于 come across(副词),就可理解为“横向通过或穿过什么而过来”,只是结合上下文没有具体指出横向通过的是什么而已。例如:

1) He came across to talk to me. 他走过来和我谈话。

2) She did not come across as well on the stage as on radio. 她在舞台上就不如在电台上那样成功。

a. step across a stream 跨过一条小溪

b. Step across and have tea with me tonight. 今晚过来同我一起喝茶。(说话双方对于住址之间的距离心照不宣,于是用 across 副词形式。)

cut across the field. 字面上意思是“横切穿过田野”,但其目的是走捷径,因此应理解为“抄近路从这片田野横穿过去”才是英语本义。Cut across the plan 字面上是“横向剪切这项计划”,故应理解为“打乱或损害…”之意。若后面用sb. ,则变为“触犯某人”之意。

Put… across… 本义为“让…通过(或穿过)……”。例如:You can’t put that across me. 你不可能让那件事在我身上通过(即你这件事骗不了我)。但在“put her across”一句中,就须注意上文和当时情景。若前面是一条河,就应理解为“把她送过河去”;如果是“Put this deal across”,就变为“让这笔交易成功”;如果是“If your idea is put across well, the students will understand it”,则就变为“如果你的想法能表达清楚,学生是会理解的。”

由此可见,学习英语固定短语,不能光凭词典上的几条译义,而应从英语本身角度考虑。这就是我们常说的 thinkin English(用英语思维)的道理。

After 的搭配用法及注意事项

一、after 作介词用,表示时间、顺序方面“……之后”之意

It was a few minutes after (或 past) ten. 那时是十点过几分。

He went to the Beijing Economic-Technological Development Area after a few days. 几天以后他去了北京经济技术开发区。

After having been discussed the newspaper report was published. 这份新闻报告在讨论以后就发表了。(动名词短语作介词 after 的宾语。)

Monday comes after Sunday. 星期一在星期日之后。

After school they will leave their classroom one after another. 放学后他们将一个接着一个地离开教室。

After you! 请先走!

二、介词 after 还作“仿”、“依照”解,用在某些动词后面含有“追踪”、“探求”之意

That bookcase was made after a new model. 该书柜系仿照新的样式制作。

They have many pictures after famous painters. 他们有许多摹仿著名画家的画。

He began to run after the bus. 他开始追赶那辆公共汽车。

They went there after natural gas. 他们去那里勘探天然气。

Obviously they came here to seek(或 search)after(或 for)the truth. 显然他们是为追求真理而来的。

三、after 作时间从句的连接词用,仍作“在……以后”讲

After I came back he went to the electronic mall. 我回来后他去电子商场了。(本句中 after 从句的谓语也可用过去完成时。)

Soon after she arrived she began to work at Bank of China. 她到达以后不久就在中国银行开始工作了。(同上).

We found his credit card two days after he went(或 had gone)away. 他走了两天以后我们才发现他的信用卡。

The real nature of heat was established long after the concept of temperature became understood. 在温度概念为人所了解以后很久才确定了热的实质。(同上)

上述各句中 after 引导的时间从句中谓语也可用过去完成时,因其动作都是在主句谓语动词过去时所表示的动作发生之前发生的。但是,由于 after 本身的词义已把主句和从句的过去时谓语动词的动作先后分清,故有时全用一般过去时。

四、after 作副词用,表示“以后”之意

We can do that after (=later)。我们以后能做到。

That happened long after. 很久以后才发生了那件事。

五、几点注意事项

Ⅰ. 表示从现在算起的“几天(几小时)后”,不能用 after,要用 in。

I shall go to the investment bank in a few days. 隔几天我去投资银行。

II. 表示过去或将来某时刻以后,仍用 after。如果要表达从过去某时刻算起,一直延续到说话时刻为止,则应该用 since,不能用 after。

She will go to the on-net coffee shop after nine o’clock tomorrow. 明天九点以后她将去网上咖啡店。(不能用 in 代替 after,因这个时间不是从现在算起的时间累积数。)

After 1949 he lived in Tianjin. 1949 年后他住在天津。(不能用 since 代替 after。)

I have been living here since 1949. 从 1949 年以来,我一直住在这里。(不能用 after 代替 since,因 since 表示从过去某时刻开始,一直延续到现在。)

III. 用 after 引出的时间状语从句不用将来时,要用现在时(包括现在一般时、现在完成时和现在进行时)代替将来时的相应形式。若用 since 引出时间状语从句,则从句内常用过去一般时或过去完成时。

He will leave after I arrive. 他将在我到达后离开。(勿用 shall arrive 代。)

The boy will go home after he has sold all the newspapers. 这男孩将在卖完所有报后再回家。(句中 after 后现在完成时实系表示将来完成时。)

Ⅳ. 注意用 after 引出的定语从句修饰前面的含有时间意义的名词:

He arrived the day after you left Tianjin. 他是在你离津的第二天到达的。(被修饰的名词 the day 在句中作时间状语。)

六、根据 after 的基本词义“以后”、“仿照”以及由此引申出来的“追逐、追求、关心”)用形象思维或逻辑思维方法来领会并记忆下列固定短语

look (或 see) after a child 照顾小孩(看管小孩只能是在小孩后面看才能保证小孩不出意外。因此这是一幅很生动的画面)

go (或 run) after a girl 追求一个女孩

go (或 run) after the wounded deer 追逐受伤的鹿

follow after sth. 追求某目的(这里 follow 作“跟随或追随”讲)

keep after sb 盯住不放某人,一再提醒某人(由“一直保持跟在某人后面,一再向某人说某事”引申过来)

hunger (或 thirst) after (或 for) sth. 渴望得到某物(由“如饥似渴地追求某物”引申过来)

hunt (或 nose) after (或 for)…搜寻或探索…(譬喻“为打猎搜找或用鼻嗅闻的方法去搜找…”之意)

pant (或 pine) after (或 for)…渴望(知识即 knowledge)[形象化譬喻为“喘着气仍追求知识或为了追求知识,身体消瘦都不在乎”]

feel after (或 for)…用手摸索(开关即 the switch 等)

search (或 seek) after (或 for)…寻找或探索(真理即 the truth 等)[以上五例中 after 都可用 for 替代,只是说的角度不同而已,而基本意思相同。]

ask (或 inquire, enquire) after you(他)向你问候[指“向有关人员问起你的健康工作等情况”]

take after sb. 长得像某人,学某人的榜样[这里 after 有“仿效”、“模仿”、“仿照”含义。可联系 make sth. after a new pattern 模仿新的样式制作某物]

Read after me. 跟着(或模仿)我念。(本句原义不完全是“在我后面读”。)

one after another一个接着一个(地),day after day一天又一天地,after all 毕竟等……

Against 用法及注意事项

一、against 作“反对”、“违反”讲

The slaves rose against their masters. 奴隶们起来反对他们的主人。

This explanation is against the natural laws. 这种解释是违反自然规律的。

Our workshop has a regulation against smoking. 我们车间有一条禁烟规定。

He will speak againnst anything he knows to be wrong. 他将发言反对凡是他认为是错误的一切东西。

二、against 作“靠着”、“位置相对着”、“逆着”、“对着”、“顶着”、“衬着”讲

The picture hangs against the wall. 这张画挂在墙上。(原义是:“……靠着墙挂着。”)

Their house is over against the laboratory. 他们的房子正在实验室对面。

Now our car is running against the wind. 现在我们的汽车正逆风行驶。

A force is needed to move an object against inertia. 为使物体克服惯性而运动,就需要一个力。

That ship will not strike against a rock by using some new-type instruments. 那条船使用新式仪表将不会触礁。

I saw the grey summit of the mountain against a wonderful background of blue sky. 我看见灰色的顶峰后面衬着蔚蓝色天空的绝妙背景。

三、as against 和 against表示“对照“、“对比”关系

As against last year, our grain output has increased by more than 6 per cent. 与去年相比,我们的粮食生产增加了百分之六以上。

The factory has produced 95,000 tons of sugar this year,as against the 59,300 tons of last year. 这个厂今年已生产了 95,000 吨糖,而去年只生产 59,300 吨。(意译)

She was elected chairman by a majority of 50 votes against 10. 她以五十对十票的多数被选为主席。(chairman为主语补语。)

四、against作“以防”、“以备”讲

She is saving money against old age. 她存钱防老。

We must guard against disease. 我们必须预防疾病。

They store up coal against the winter. 他们贮藏煤以备冬用。

We should save fuel against the day of battle. 我们应该节省燃料以备战时之用。

These watches are guaranteed against water damage. 这些表是防水的。(由“…被保证防止浸水损坏”引申过来。)

五、理解带有 against 的固定短语可从下列三个方面着手:

Ⅰ. against 表示“反对”、“反抗”、“违反”之意。

例如:advise against sb’s doing… 劝某人不做…;argue against sth. 争辩反对某事……;struggle(或 fight,combat)against… 与(敌人)斗争(或战斗,搏斗);come against sb. 进攻某人(由“前来反对某人”引申过来);declare against… 宣布或声明反对(那种错误的观点等);dispute against sb. 和某人辩论;discriminate against sb. 歧视某人(由“以区别对待反对某人”引申过来);go(或run)against …违背(某人的观点等);inform against sb. 告发某人;protest against…抗议反对(物价上涨即 the price rise);cry against…大声抗议或抱怨(削减工资即 the pay cut);turn against… 转为反对(某人,某事)等。

II. 从表示位置关系来理解并记忆下列带有 against 的固定短语。

例如:stand (或 sit) against… 靠(墙即 the wall)站或坐;dash against… 猛撞(大门等);patter against the windows(雨)嗒嗒地打在窗户上;strike… against… 把(自行车)撞在(墙)上;strike against…(他)撞在(门即the door)上;do work against friction 克服摩擦而作功(直译为:顶住摩擦而作功)等。

III. 从against(反对)及其反义词for(支持、赞成)来加深理解这两个系列的相应短语。

例如:be against (或 for) the suggestion 反对(或赞成)这个建议;stand against (或 for)… 主张反对(或支持)(某事或某人);speak against (或 for) sb. 发言反对某人(或为某人辩护);vote against(或for)sb. 投票反对(或赞成)某人;struggle against (或 for)…和…作斗争(或为…而斗争);strike against(或 for)…为反对(或为获得)……而罢上等。

Ahead 的用法特点

一、副词 ahead 基本词义是“在前面”和“向前”。应注意它的引申含义

His eyes stared straight ahead. 他的眼睛(那时)直盯住前方。

He went on watching the road ahead. 他继续注视着前面的那条路。(后置定语)

Looking ahead he decided to stick to his present job. 由于他看得远,就决定坚持干当前的工作。(Look ahead 是“向前看”,现引申为“看得远”。)

Oil pollution control inched ahead in 1998. 1998 年石油污染控制进展较慢。(句中 inch ahead 本义为“一寸一寸地前进”,现引申为“进展缓慢”. )

Ahead there is much work to be done. 当前有许多工作要做。(将 ahead 作“在前面”讲引申为“当前”、“眼前”。)

a. They went ahead to clear the road of obstructions. 他们先走了一步以清除路上的障碍。(直译)

b. Laser technology has gone ahead rapidly. 激光技术已迅速取得进展。(转译)

This country began to push(或 press)ahead(或 toward)with its new policy. 这个国家开始推行新政策。(根据字面意思不难看出,push ahead 是“自己出力往前推”,press ahead 是“在有压力情况下挤向前”,而 with… 是活搭配,作“带着…”讲。最后译“推行…”是很恰当的,符合英语本义。)

二、立足于 ahead 的本义,正确理解有 ahead 的固定短语,ahead of…作“位置在……前面”、“时间比……早”讲

There were three women ahead of him in the queue (或 line). (当时)有三位妇女排在他前面。

She left two days ahead of me. 她比我先走两天。

She finished her experiment ahead of the others. 她结束实验比别人早。

The bus came ahead of time (或 ahead of schedule). 公共汽车提前到来。

He is two classes ahead of me. 他比我高两班。

a. They shot ahead of you in English. 他们在英语方面很快地超过了你。

b. He shot ahead towards the end of the race. 赛跑近终点时他飞快冲到前面。(不及物动词 shoot 作“如箭或子弹一般地飞驰”讲,加上 ahead 本意就作“飞快向前冲”。为此,必须扩大 shoot 词义,不能局限于“发射”、“射出”,而应能联想到“如同箭或子弹那样快地飞驰”。又如:The rabit shot off. 兔子飞快地跑了。)

We must look ahead. 我们必须向前看(或考虑未来)。

It’s important for us to keep (或 remain, stay) ahead. 重要的是让我们继续保持领先。

The soldiers are moving ahead. 战士们正走在前面。

All 的主要用法

一、形容词 all 作“所有的”、“一切”、“全”讲

Of all the multimedia computers this one works best. 在所有这些多媒体计算机申,这台操作最好。

All the senior engineers want to develop the information technology data high speed. 所有这些高级工程师都想高速度发展信息技术。

All matter is composed of atoms. 一切物质由原子构成。

He has taught English all his life. 他教了一辈子英语啦! 注:有 all 作前置定语时,如果使用冠词 the 或物主代词,则它们的位置应在 all 的后面。

二、all 作名词或代词用,作“全部”、“全体”、“一切”讲

All of us are waiting to get online. 我们全体都等着上网。(作代词)。

You have to note down all that is important. 你得把重要的都记下来。(作名词。本句还可用 what 代替 all that 引出的从句)。

The workers did all (that) they could to increase the production of steel. 工人们尽了他们最大努力来提高钢产量。(作名词。直译为:工人们为了增加钢产量而做了他们能做的一切。也可用 what 代替 all that。)

三、注意 all 作主语的同位语时在句中的词序

We are all here. 我们全在这儿。

They are all network engineers. 他们都是网络工程师。

They all made a quantity of high temperature tests yesterday. 他们昨天都做了一些高温试验。

Here the symbols all have the same meanings as before. 这里符号的意义完全和以前相同。(意译)

We have all finished our work. 我们都做完了自己的工作。

Radiant,, electrical, and chemical energies can, as we shall see, all be turned into heat. 我们将看到,辐射能、电能和化学能都能转变为热。

四、all 作副词用,在句中作状语,表示“全”、“尽”之意

His feet are all wet. 他的双脚全湿了。

I think I am all wrong. 我想我全错了。

五、“all(或 every)+否定式谓语+…”构成部分否定

All answers are not right. 并非所有答案全对。(= Not all answers are right. 或:Not every answer is right. 并非每个答案都对。)

All glass is not transparent. 并非所有的玻璃都是透明的。(= Not all glass is, transparent.)

I do not know all (或 everyone) of them. 我并不是认识他们中的每个人。

注:在“all…+肯定式谓语+含有否定意义的单词……”的结构中,all 仍被全部否定。这时它的否定意义不是通过谓语,而是通过句子其它成份中含有否定意义的单词表达出来的。例如:

1)All atoms are invisible to the naked eye. 一切原子都是肉眼看不见的。 2)We all dislike going to the teahouse. 我们都不喜欢去茶馆。 3)All her ideas came to nothing. 她的一切想法都没有实现。

六、带有 all 的常用词组用法举例

He does not understand at all. 他完全不明白。

This is of no value at all. 这毫无价值。

Are you going to do it at all? 你究竟做不做这件事呢?

If you do it at all, do it well. 如果你要做这件事,就得好好做。

注:不难看出,at all 只用于否定句、疑问句和条件句中,以加强语气。

After all, he may be right. 归根结底,他还可能是对的。

After all the device is not so heavy as you thought. 这个装置毕竟不像你当初想的那么重。

We believe that he can complete the task all alone. 我们相信他能单独完成任务的。

The information world is changing all the time. 信息世界一直在变化。

Yesterday they discussed the project all together. 昨天他们一起讨论了这个项目.

He jumped into the river all of a sudden。他突然跃入河中。

All in all, it was a success. 总的说来,这是成功的。

English is by no means an easy language, but all the same I like to learn it. 英语并非是一门容易学的语言,但我照样喜欢学英语。

These books numbered ten all told(或 in all). 这些书总共十本。

Opening the windows sometimes makes it all the hotter. 有时打开窗户反而越来越热。(注意与比较级连用。)

Alone 的用法和注意点

一、形容词 alone 作“单独的”讲,一般用作表语或宾语补语

He is not very much alone. 他不是十分孤单的。(不能单用 very 修饰。)

Leave him alone. 别理他(或别惹他)。(宾语补语)

Let the portable computer alone. 别动那台提携式计算机。(宾语补语)

二、alone 用于名词或代词后作“只有”“惟有”讲

Of us all Jenny alone fore saw the danger. 在我们全体中间,只有詹妮预见到那种危险。

a. He alone went. (当时)只有他去了。(言外之意,别人都没有去。)

b. She went alone, but the others went in groups. 她独自去了,而其他人分组去的。(句中 alone 前无名词,不作“只有”讲。)

Man alone can speak. 只有人类会说话。

注:alone 不能位于名词前作前置定语。例如,不能说 They lived on alone meat,而只能说 They lived on meat alone. 他们只靠吃肉度生。

三、副词alone作“独自地”、“单独地”讲

a. We can do this work alone. 我们能独自做这项工作。

b. 试比较:She alone can do this work. 只有她能做这项工作。

You can’t lift this desktop PC alone. 你一人抬不起这个台式个人电脑。

四、注意 alone 和 only 用法异同

It is impossible to complete this task by individual effort alone(或 only). 单靠(或只靠)个人努力是不可能完成这项任务的。(意思相同。)

a. They sell cotton clothing alone. 他们独自出售布衣服。(含有“他们独家销售布衣服”之意。)

b. They sell cotton clothing only. 他们只出售布衣服。(含有“专卖布衣服而不出售绸缎、毛呢”之意。)

由此可见,必须根据上下文来区别 alone 和 only 用法的异同。

五、注意带 alone 的几个常用词组用法

a. Let the panda alone. 别惹这只大熊猫。(由“让这只大熊猫独自呆着”引申过来。)

b. Let her alone do it. 只让她做这件事。(alone 修饰前面的代词宾格 her。)

a. He knows a lot of French, let alone English. 他精通法语,至于英语更不在话下。

b. He won’t even thank you, let alone pay you. 他连谢都不谢,更不用说付你钱了。

The hospital stands at the foot of a hill all alone. 那个医院孤零零地座落在山脚下。

Along 的用法以及对其常用短语的理解

一、介词 along 作“沿着”讲

Many trees were planted along the river-bank. 沿着河岸种植了许多树。

There are trees all along the road. 沿着这条路从头到尾都有树。

We must think along certain regulations. 我们必须依照某些规定来思考。

注:汉语中的“沿着这个方向”或“沿着这条途径”不能用 along…,而要分别表示为 in this direction 或 in this way。这里 in 作“按照”讲。

二、副词 along 作“向前”讲,常与有关动词或介词 with 连用,构成一些常用词组

Let’s go along to the classroom and attend his lecture on Computer Time. 让我们前去教室听他的“计算机时代”专题讲座。

A new Ferrari came along from behind me. 一辆新的法拉利(跑车)从我背后开过来.

注:副词 along 和运动动词连用,基本意思是“向前”,但由于说话人所站位置不同,come along 应理解为“走过来”,而 go along 应理解为“走过去”。当然上述这个“走”字还可由于主语不同而译成其它相应的动词。

We’ll be along about eight. 我们八点左右过来(或过去)。

I want to bring my daughter along to see you. 我想把女儿带来看望你。

The children were brought along well inschool. 孩子们在学校受到良好教育。(由孩子们在校内被好好地带领或引导向前“引申过来。如果是 The fine weather will bring the crops along very nicely. 则应理解为好的天气大大促进农作物的生长”。但这里 bring … along nicely“把…往前带”的原意仍为“好好地把……带领向前”。为此必须深刻理解“把……往前带的”原意,才能真正体会到英汉词典上的注释“教育或帮助(某人)发展”、“促进(农作物)生长”等含义的由来。

The bus conductor often says "Pass along the car please" or "Move along please". 公共汽车售票员常说“请往车里走”或“请往前走”。(句中第一个 along 为介词,而第二个为副词。仍应按原文本意去理解译文。)

How are you getting along? 你(生活过得)好吗?

How is she getting (或 going) along with her work? 她工作进展如何?(相当于:How is her work getting (或 going) along?)

He gets along very well with us. 他和我们相处很好。

She will send it back along with some other things. 她将此物与其它东西一并送回。(句中 along with… 系单独使用,作“与…一起”,可用 together with…来互换。)

The mechanization of agriculture will raise the output, and, along with it, the living standard of the peasants. 农业机械化将提高产量,同时也将提高农民的生活水平。(句中 along with 本意不变,但译为“同时也”。应该说,这是根据原文本意并结合汉语表达方法作出的正确翻译。)

I knew that all along. (那时)对那件事我一直(或始终)真知道。

注:“动词 + 副词 along”的其它常用短语还有:carry… along 携带(一个大包裹即 a big parcel),(洪水即 the flood)挟带(树木即 trees),help sb. along(或 on, toward)帮助某人前进或进步,move along 往前走,(或走开,别停留),take …along 带走(某人或某物)等。

And 用法中几个值得注意的问题

一、and 连接两个动词,有时后面动词的行为是前面动词的行为对象或目的,译成汉语时可以连着翻译。但有时and前面的部分用来表示条件

Try and do it again. 再做做看。(行为对象)

Please send and fetch the mini-camera. 请派人把小型照相机拿来。(行为目的)

Let us go and try it again. 让我们再去试试。(行为目的)

Try again and you will succeed. 再试一次,你就会成功。(条件)

注:上述用法中第一个动词多半是表示如下的动词:come, go, try, stop, stay, wait, run, hurry up 等。

二、and 所连接的并列关系及判别

It is impossible to live in society and be independent of society. 生于社会,不能超乎(或脱离)社会。(and 连接两个不定式。)

Everywhere you can find new types of men and objects in the hometown. 在故乡,新人新事比比皆是。(and 连接两个名词 men 和 objects。)

This crude oil is a complex mixture of gaseous and liquid saturated and unsaturated molecules. 这种原油系气态、液态饱和分子和气态、液态非饱和分子所构成的混合物。

Rubber gets warmer when stretched and cools when relaxed. 橡皮(被)拉伸时发热,而放松时变凉。(and 连接两个谓语 gets 和 cools。)

I prefer seeing a story as a TV film to reading it in a book, because I can actually see the characters and how they are dressed and watch their expressions. 我宁愿看电视片故事,而不愿看一本书内的故事,因为这样我能实际地看到各种人物及其穿著打扮,还能注视他们的表情。(第一个 and 连接一个宾语 characters 和一个宾语从句 how…,而第二个and连接动词 see 和 watch。)

注意“and that”在下列两句中是一种加强语气的省略说法,一般可译为“而且”。例如:

You must tell her, and that at once. 你必须告诉她,而且马上告诉她。(that 代表 tell her。)

He will come, and that soon. 他要来,而且很快就来。(that 代替 will come。)

下面这两句,光凭语法分析就判断不了 and 究竟连接了哪两个部分,而必须从逻辑意义上来加以判别:

He said he would come and he did come. 他说他会来的,而他果然来了。(and 连接 He said 和 he did come,不连接 he would come 和 he did come。)

He told her what had happened and left. 他告诉她发生了什么事,然后就走了。(and 连接 told 和 left,而不是连接 happened 和 left 的。)

但还必须注意用 and 把词组和从句连接在一起的情况:

Physics is the study of heat, sound, magnetism, electricity, light, the properties of matter and what it is composed of. 物理学研究热、声、磁、电、光、物质性质以及用以构成物质的东西。( what 从句和 heat 等构成并列。这里可把“东西”引申译为“粒子。”)

The warmer the air, the faster its molecules move and therefore the faster the dust particles in it move. 空气越热,则分子运动就越快,因而空气内尘粒运动也就越快。(第一部分为比较状语从句,后面 and 连接两个并列的主句。)

The moon is a world that is completely still and where utter silence prevail. 月球是一个全然寂静的世界,是一个万籁无声的世界。(and 连接两个定语从句。)

How I wish, John knew how to apply grammatical rules properly and recognized the fact that he is nearly always in the wrong. 我恨不得约翰能知道如何恰当地使用语法规则并且认识到他几乎一直是错的事实。(knew 和 recognized 是并列的虚拟语气。)

有时,句中出现几个 and,必须分析清楚每个 and 所表示的并列关系。例如:Small industrial enterprises producing iron and steel, chemicalfertilizer, coal, machinary, cement, chemical fibres and paper and small hydroelectric power statlons are all over the country. 生产钢铁、化肥、煤、机械、水泥、化学、纤维和纸张的小型地方企业以及小型水力发电站遍及全国各地。(句中从 iron 到 paper,都是 producing 后的宾语。iron 和 steel 中间用 and,是因为“钢铁”是 一固定词组。最后一个 and 才是连接句首的 enterprises 和句子末尾的 stations的。)

注:美国英语用“nice 或 good + and + 形容词”作“very + 形容词”讲。

Your room is nice and warm. 你的房间很暖和。

This melon is good and ripe. 这只西瓜熟透了。

三、用 and 来重叠词的用法

I. 用 and 重叠比较级来表示“越来越……”之意:

In spring the day is getting longer and longer and the night (is getting) shorter and shorter. 春季白天越来越长,夜晚越来越短。

The snow came down faster and faster and lay on the earth thicker and thicker.(当时)雪越下越大,地上的雪越积越厚。

Electronic computers are becoming more and more useful in scientific research work. 电子计算机在科研工作中越来越有用. (只重复 more,而后面原级形容词不重复。)

II. 用 and 重叠词来表示强调和延续之意:

They have checked the conclusion again and again. 他们已经一而再、再而三地检查了这个结论。

What we want, first and foremost, is to learn, to learn and to learn. 我们首先需要的是学习、学习、再学习。

We should read this book through and through(或 over and over). 我们应该反复地通读这本书。 必须指出,动词短语有时没有全部重复,而只重复其中一部分。例如:

The electrons move around and around the nucleus. 电子围着原子核转个不停。

A body in motion will go on and (go) on in motion,unless acted upon by an outside force. 运动的物体,如果不受外力作用,将继续运动下去。

We waited and waited for a long time, but we still didn’t see him come here. 我们等了又等好长时间,但仍未见他来到这里。

四、注意 and 可使句子成分大为省略

The best conductor has the least resistance, and the poorest (conductor has) the greatest (resistance). 最好的导体电阻最小,而最差的导体电阻最大。

All bodies consist of molecules and these (molecules consist) of atoms. 一切物体都由分子组成,而分子由原子组成。

In other words, an atom of chlorine will combine with one hydrogen atom, an atom of oxygen with two, an atom of nitrogen with three, and an atom of carbon with four. 换句话说,一个氯原子会与一个氢原于化合,一个氧原子会与两个氢原子化合,一个氮原子会与三个氢原子化合,而一个碳原子会与四个氢原子化合。

五、注意 and 前的省略情况,一般以“名词 + and…”结构出现

Another hour, and all the doors will be locked. 再过一小时,所有门都要上锁。(Another hour, and… = When another hour has passed…)

One more effort, and we shall succeed. 再努力一下,我们就会成功。(One more effort, and… = If we make one more effort…. )

Two minutes earlier, and we could have caught the last train. 如果早来两分钟,我们就能搭上末班火车了。

六、注意 and 用于加法和一百以上的数字中

One and two are(或 make)three. 一加二等于三。

one hundred and twelve pagers. 一百一十二个寻呼机

七、and 用于罗列举例之末,表示“…等”之意时短语汇总

例如:and so on, and so forth, and others, and the like, and what not 以及 “, etc. ”(但前面不能用 and )等。

Any 和 Some 的用法及其差异

一、any 作“任何的”讲,一般用于否定句、疑问句和条件状语从句中

He did not put any questions to me. 他未曾向我提任何问题。

Have you any ink? 你有墨水吗?

If you have any trouble, please come here. 如果你有什么困难,请到这里来吧。 注:any 可修饰可数名词和不可数名词。

There is not any oil in the bottle. 瓶子里没有油了。

注:在否定句里一般不用 any 修饰主语。但上句是“there be”结构,其否定句仍可用 any 修饰。一般说来,用 no 否定主语即可。

二、some 作“一些、若干部分、若干、某些或某个”讲,大多用于肯定句

We have to learn some English. 我们得学点英语。

There must be some water in the container. 该容器内准有点水。

We shall answer for some flight tests. 我们将对某些试飞负责。

Some of the beepers answer to the description given. (其中)有些寻呼机与所给的说明相符。

Some day(或 One day,some day or other)he will be able to answer all the questions. 他总有一天将能回答全部这些问题。

判别:some 后接不可数名词,表示“若干部分”之意,(见第 1,2 句);接复数名词作“某些”讲(见第 3、4 句);接可数名词单数则作“某个”讲(见第 5 句)。

三、any 若用于肯定句,则作“无论什么的”或“任何一个、一些”讲

Any of you can come in at any time. 无论什么时候你们中间任何人都可进来。

It seems to be the last chance any of them has(或 have). 这对他们中间任何人来说,似乎是最后一次机会。(意译)

四、some 一般不用于疑问句中,但可用于表示请求、建议、反问等的疑问句中,并且这时还不能用 any 代替。如果用 any 代之,就没有请求、建议、反问等含义

Can I have some sugar? 我能要一些糖吗?(表示一种请求,问话时含有“我大概可以要一些糖”的意思。若用 any 代替 some,就无此层意思。)

Will you lend me some English books? 你肯借给我几本英语书吧?(表示一种建议,含有“你大概肯借给我几本英语书”的意思。若用 any 代替 some,就无此层意思。)

Why didn’t you visit some software companies?为什么(当时)你不去参观几家软件公司呢?(表示一种反问。若用 any 代替 some,就无这种反问的意味。)

Didn’t you see some of your students yesterday? 难道你昨天没有看见几个你的学生?(表示反问。)

Has he not some Japanese books? 他怎会没有几本日语书呢?(表示一种反问,实际上含有“他大概有几本日语书”的意思。若用 any 代替 some,就无此层意思。)

Would you like some tea? 你愿喝点茶吗?(表示建议。)

五、否定句中用 any 表示全部否定。在否定句中一般不用 some,若遇到用 some,则为部分否定

He does not understand any of these words. 这些词他都不理解。(全部否定)

They do not know some of us. 我们中间有几个人他们并不认识。(部分否定指的是:他们并非不认识我们全体,只是不认识我们中间几个人而已。)

主要推论:上述五大项用法不限于 some,any 两词,还可推广到类似的同根词(something, anything, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone 等)的用法中去。

六、some 接数字,作“大约”讲 (联系第150节Ⅷ)

The mobile phones are some sixty in all. 移动电话总共约六十个。

There are some four or five answers to this question. 这个问题约有四、五个答案。

七、注意 somemore(或其它比较级)和 anymore(或其它比较级)及表示“再增加点…”之意。前者用于肯定句,后者用于否定句

Pour some more water into the container. 再倒点水于容器中。

Give us some more examples to explain the problem. 再举几个例子解释这个问题。

We want some more. 我们再要一些(或一点)。

We will not do it any more. 我们将不再做那件事了。

Don’t talk any more. 不要再说话了。

注:这里的 more 应理解为“再”。试联系 once more 再一次,50 more 再五十。显然,这里 more 前的数字或不定数是在原有基础上增加的数值。

八、注意 some time,sometime 和 sometimes 用法各异

Some time I saw him watching the network TV. 有一次我看见他在看网络电视。

I want to stay in the meeting place for some time. 我想在会场呆一会儿。

He visited you sometime last year. 他在去年某一时间访问了你。

The baby sometimes smiles, sometimes cries. 这婴儿有时微笑,有时哭叫。

九、hardly(或 scarcely), never, not 和 without 常和 any 或不定冠词连用的情况

He has never looked after his son. 他从来没有照顾他的儿子。

She completed the contract without any trouble. 她毫不困难地履行了合同。

There is hardly gasoline in the tank. 油箱内几乎没有汽油了。

He knows scarcely any (或 a) word of English. 他几乎不懂英语。

注:hardly 或 scarcely 后接可数名词单数时,其间必须用 a 或 any。

十、some 和 any 的用法差别一般还可推广到 something, anything, somebody(或 someone), anybody(或 anyone), somewhere, anywhere

Clearly, something was up yesterday. 显然,昨天出事了。

We saw someone(或 somebody)go out of your office. 我们见到有人从你的办公室里出来。(否定句则为:We didn't see anybody(或 anyone)go out of your office.)

Is she going anywhere this morning? 今天上午她打算去什么地方吗?

They hope to go somewhere where there is hardly any air pollutlon. 他们希望去几乎没有什么空气污染的地方。

Apart 及 Apart From 的用法

一、副词 apart 作“分离”、“分开”、“相隔”讲

The two chain shops are 2 kilometers apart. 这两个连锁店相隔2公里。

Galileo placed two men about a mile apart. 伽里略安置两人相距约一英里。

二、副词 apart 在常用词组内一般作“分开”或“把 … 放在一边”讲

come apart(某物等)破碎或散架;fall apart(房屋等)倒塌,(公司等)破产,(军队、旧制度等)崩溃;keep … apart 使 … 保持分开或泾谓分明;live apart 分居,生活单过;pull … apart 把(玩具等)拆开,把(报纸)撕碎,把(冰等)打破,把(这本书)批评得一无是处,把(房间等)弄乱;put … apart for … 单放(这笔款子、某物等)供 … 用;set … apart for … 单放(衣服、钱款等)供(或备)… 用;take … apart 拆卸(机器等);彻底打败(敌人),严厉批评(某人);tear … apart 撕开(纸等),翻乱(房间等),使(某人)心烦意乱;tell … and … apart 辨别(是非即 right and wrong)等。

三、注意 apart from… 和有关动词搭配表示“与 … 分离或隔开”含义时

stand apart from … (这女孩)离(其他孩子)而站立,(图书馆)和(邮局)不在一起,(他)脱离(群众即 the masses)

a. keep … apart from … (他)不让(他的妻子)参予(他的工作),(我)把(工作)和(娱乐即 pleasure)分得一清二楚

b. keep apart from … (她)不参加(任何会议),(他)脱离(群体即 the group)

live apart from … (他)和(家里人即 his family)分开住

四、apart from 和 besides, except, but 等用法比较。

apart from 作“除 … 以外”讲,其用法基本上与 besides 相同。在肯定句中 apart from… 表示“包括在内的”意思;在否定句中,它的用法与 except 相同,表示“例外”的含义,因此仍可用 besides 来替换。例如:

We have one hour to rest after lunch apart from our ordinary work. 除了日常工作,我们午饭后休息一小时。(肯定句中 apart from 可用 besides,in addition to 或〈美〉aside from 代替。)

Apart from a pager the manager gave me many compact discs. 除了寻呼机,经理还给了我许多光盘。(同上)

I didn't buy anything apart form a portable phone. 除了手机(或移动电话)以外,我什么都没有买。(在否定句中可用 besides,except 或 but 代替 apart from。)

There is nothing apart from a digital hi-definition colour TV set on the desk. 桌子上只有一台数字高清晰度彩电。(意译。替换词与第 3 句相同。)

As 的主要用法和判别

英语里的 as 是一个比较常见、用法繁多的词。它和其它词的搭配关系也很广泛。现归纳为以下几种作用。至于它的特殊用法, 即在各种固定词组里的用法, 我们打算在下一个专题讨论(见本节后面 As 在各种句型和固定词组里的用法)。

一、as 用作关系代词, 引出定语从句

I. such … as 像 … 这(那)样的, 像 … 之类的。as 和 such 连用, such 在下列句子里作定语用, 说明主句里的某个名词。as 所引导的定语从句修饰前面的名词, 而 as 本身在从句里, 可能是主语、宾语或表语。

We Will give you such data as will help you in your work. 我们要提供给你们那种对你们工作有帮助的资料。(as 作从句里的主语。)

He is not such a man as would leave his work half done. 他并不是一个做事半途而废的那种人。(as 作从句里的主语, half done 作宾语补语。)

I hope to get such a tool as he repaired this instrument with. 我希望能够得到一个像他用来修理这个仪器的那类工具。(as 作 with 的宾语, 这个介词短语作状语。)

II. the same … as 和 … 同样的

This is the same tool as I used yesterday. 这和我昨天所使用的工具是相同的。(as 作从句的宾语)

I should like to use the same instrument as is used in your workshop. 我想用你们车间里所用的同样的仪器。(as 作从句的主语。)

He is not the same man as he was. 他和过去不同了。(as 作从句的表语。)

Molecular weights are expressed in the same units as atomic weights. 分子量以原子量所用的相同单位表示之。(as 作关系副词, 定语从句内省略了与主句相同的谓语 are expressed。)

If one object is charged with the same kind of electricity as appears on another nearby, the two objects will repel each other. 如果一个物体带有与它邻近的物体上所出现的同种类的电荷, 这两个物体会相互排斥。(as 作从句的主语。)

This is the same instrument as we stand in need of. 这正是我们迫切需要的那种仪表。(as 作介词 of 的宾语。)

The Chinese people are not the same as they were before. 中国人民跟以前不同了。

Radio waves travel at the same speed as light in empty space or in air. 在空洞洞的宇宙和空气申, 无线电波的传播速度和光速相同。

They do the same job as we do. 他们干的是和我们相同的工作。

Heat radiation is of the same nature as light, X-rays and radio waves. 热辐射就其性质而言, 是和光、X光及无线电波相同的。

注:注意“… same as”有时发展到接近于 just as 引出方式状语从句的用法。例如:

She has put her energy into literature — same as you have put yours into computers. 正如你把全部精力投入计算机那样, 她也把全部精力投入到文学了。

III. as many … as, as much … as(分别用于可数和不可数名词)如 … 一般多;如此之多;凡 … 的 … 都

As many instruments as are in the laboratory have been made most use of. 实验室里那么多的仪器都已充分利用了。(as 作从句的主语)

There are as many books as are needed. 凡是需要的书都有了。(as 作从句的主语)

He has as many books on information technology as I have. 他拥有的信息技术书和我拥有的同样多。(as 在从句中作宾语)

Here is a jar of distilled water. You may use as much as you need. 这里有一大瓶蒸馏水, 你需要多少就可以用多少。(as 在从句中作宾语)

These generators supply only half as much energy as required. 这些发电机只供应所需能量的一半。(第二个 as 在从句中作主语, 其后省略了 is。)

下句中可把 as(指第二个 as)理解为引出相比较的具体内容:

He is a man to whom work means as much as life. 他是一个把工作看作和生命一样重要的人。(to whom… 也为定语从句。)

As much as half a foot of snow has fallen in Tianjin. 天津已下了半英尺厚的雪。

At this weather analysis center, as many as 35 different charts were constructed for a given time. 当时在这个气象分析中心要为同一个规定的时间绘制多达 35 种不同的图表。

Ⅳ. 关系代词 as 代替整个主句, 并在从句中作主语、宾语、表语之用。as 引出的从句为非限制性定语从句。

As (is) announced in today's papers, they have succeeded in solving many problems in accordance with the new theory. 据今天报纸发表, 他们已根据新的理论成功地解决了许多问题。(as 在从句中作主语。)

As is often the case, we have overfulfilled the production plan. 像往常情况一样, 我们又超额完成了生产计划。(as 在从句中作主语。)

As we know, materials expand and contract with the increase and decrease of temperature. 我们都知道, 材料随温度升降而胀缩。(as 在从句中作宾语。)

This machine, as might be expected, has stopped operating. 正如所料, 这台机器已停止运转。 (as 在从句中作主语。)

She rises early and takes a walk every morning, as is usual with her. 她每天早晨早起散步, 这对她已习以为常了。(同上, 但 as 表示整个主句意思。)

As is very natural, man can't live without air and water. 人没有空气和水就不能生存, 这是当然之事。(全部同上。)

The size of the audience, as we had expected, was well over one thousand. 听众人数, 正不出我们预料, 大大超过一千人。(as 代表主句意思, 在从句中作宾语。)

If he comes late, as is usual, for another time, we’ll not receive him. 如果他再次像往常那样迟到, 我们就不予以接待。(as 表示条件从句内的 he comes late。)

Are these two totally different things, having no interconnection, as is often implied?这些是否是通常所指的没有内在联系的两个完全不同的东西?(as 在从句中作主语。现在分词短语 having no interconnection 作非限制性定语, 说明前面的 things。)

代替整个主句的关系代词 as, 常见于下列从句:

as has been said before 如上所述

as may be imagined 如可想像出来的那样

as is well known 众所周知

as we all can see 正如我们大家都能看到的那样

as often happens 正如经常发生的那样

as will be shown in Fig. 5 将如图 5 所示

as has been explained in the preceding paragraph 如在上段里已解释了的那样

as has been already pointed out 正如已指出的那样

注:上述句子按语法分析为非限制性定语从句, 但翻译时一般可译为“如…”、“像…”、“正如…”等.

Ⅴ. as 有时代替主句里的表语意思, 并在从句中作表语

Internet access is very simple, as indeed it is. 网上访问很简单, 它实际上的确是这样. (as 代替 simple。)

Gasoline is combustible, as are all of the liquids listed in the following section. 汽油是易燃的, 下一节里所列举的那些液体也都是易燃。(as 代替 combustible。)

He is a brave man, as are all other members of his family. 像他家庭其他成员一样, 他也很勇敢。

An atom is not a solid spherical particle, as it was once thought to be. 原子并不像人们曾经认为的那样是刚性球粒。(as 代替 a solid spherical particle, 在从句中作 to be 后的表语, 并和 to be 一起作主语补语。)

Dr. Ouyang is a large-hearted man, as the large-minded men are apt to be. 欧阳博士是个慷慨的人, 而心胸开阔的人往往都是这样。

She thinks my answer incorrect, as it probably is. 她认为我的答案不对, 也许我的答案就是不对。(as 相当于 incorrect。)

Now many young people wish to be scientists, as it is quite possible for them to be on condition that they work hard. 目前许多青年都想当科学家。只要他们刻苦努力, 这大有可能如愿以偿的。

二、as 作关系副词, 引出定语从句

He answered with the same simplicity as he asked. 他回答和提问, 都是同样的直率简洁。

We repaired the air conditioner (in) the same way as he did. 我们采取和他同样的方法去修理那台空调器。

We go the same way as they do. 我们和他们走同样一条路。

A magnetic field maybe represented in the same manner as an electric field. 磁场可采用和电场同样的办法表示出来。(定语从句内谓语省略。)

以上例句里的 with the same simplicity, the same way, in the same manner 等词组在主句里都是状语, 而 as 所代替的也就是这些词组, 所以 as 是关系副词。

三、such as, as such 和 as that 的用法

I. “名词, + such as…”这里 such as 是复合连接词, 引出同位语, 以对前面的名词起列举作用。可译为“例如”。

There are different forms of energy, such as heat energy, sound energy, electric energy, and chemical energy. 有各种不同的能, 例如热能、声能、电能和化学能。

Soft materials, such as cloth, do not carry sounds so well as wood, iron and other solids. 像布那样柔软的材料, 不如木材、铁和其它固体东西传导声音那样好。

II. “… such as”这里 such 是代词, 作“这样的人、事、物”讲, as 是关系代词, 引出定语从句。

This book is not such as I expect. 这不是一本像我所希望的书。(such 是代词作表语用, 是 as 的先行词。) 比较:This is not such a book as I expect. (句义同上, 但 such 作定语用。)

I will explain this phenomenon to such as would like to know it. 我要对那些愿意了解这种现象的人解释。(such 是代词, 作“这样的人”讲。)

上句中 to such 表示“给这样的人”,作状语,但表示间接宾语的含义,而 as 引出的定语从句说明 such, as 是从句主语。

The new type of space shuttle was made last week, such as none of us had seen before. 这种新型的航天飞机上周制成, 像这样的飞机过去我们中间谁也没有见过。

III. as such 作“像这样的人、事、物”、“作为这样的人、事、物”、“以 … 资格、名义、身份“、“因而”讲。

We agree to the plan as such. 我们同意像这样的计划。

He is an old worker, and is respected as such. 他是一位老工人, 因而受到尊敬。(或译为:受到老工人应该受到的尊敬。)

四、用连词 as 等引出状语从句

Ⅰ. 时间状语从句连词 as 正当…的时候, 随着…

He came up as I was speaking. 我正在说话的时候,他来了。

As the piston moves down, the pressure in the cylinder decreases. 当活塞下移时, 汽缸里的压力减小。

We cannot see sound waves as they travel through air. 声波在空气申传播时, 我们是看不见的。

As a little girl she began to operate a computer. 她还是个小女孩时就开始操作计算机。( as 后省略了 she was。)

The volume varies as the temperature rises. 体积随温度升高而变。

注 1:由 as long as 或 as long as 引出的时间状语从句可参阅第 015 节 24~34, 而由 as soon as 引出的时间状语从句可参阅第 015 节 34~49。

注 2:还可用 as and when 表示“当…时”, 主要用来指一件不肯定的将来的事或一个行动。例如:They will decide on their team as and when they qualify for the competition. 当他们有资格参加比赛时将决定其球队的组成。

II. 原因状语从句连词 as 或 in as much as 由于, 因为

As this problem is of great interest, we will discuss it once again. 因为这个问题很有意义, 所以我们再讨论一次。

As they had forgotten your address, they did not know how to get in touch with you. 由于忘记了你的地址, 他们(当时)不知如何跟你取得联系.

In as much as it is raining hard, I won't go for a walk. 由于正下大雨, 我就不去散步了。

III. 让步状语从句连词 as 虽然, 尽管, 无论

Busy as he is, he studies English very hard. 尽管他忙, 他还是努力学习英语。

Small as atoms are, electrons are still(或 even)smaller. 原子虽然很小, 但电子更小。

Much as I should like to see you, I am afraid you could not have any free time. 虽然我特别愿意看见你, 但恐怕你不可能有空余时间。

Child as he is, he knows something of electricity. 他虽然还是个小孩, 但他懂得一些电学知识。(注意在本句型中, 作表语用的可数名词单数前不能加冠词 a。)

Try as you may, you will not succeed. 虽然你可以试试, 但不会成功。

Study as he may, he won't get good marks, because his method of studying is not scientific. 虽然可以学习, 但他得不了好分数, 因为他的学习方法不科学。

这种让步状语从句的特点:把从句里的表语(第一、二、四句)、状语(第三句中的 much)或实义动词(第六句中的 study)提前, 紧跟着就是 as, 然后再跟随其它成分。

必须注意, 本句型偶尔可用于表示原因状语从句。只能根据上下文来判别。如果主句和从句之间在意义上有转折, 则从句为让步状语从句;如果主句和从句有因果关系, 则从句为原因状语从句。例如:

a. Old as he is, he dares the dangers of icy north。虽然他老了, 但仍敢于冒北方冰寒的危险。

b. Old as he is, he has to go to bed early. 因为他老了, 他不得不早去睡觉。

Ⅳ. 比较状语从句

A. 一般比较(从句内常省略与主语相同的成分)

(a) as … as 和……一样(或同样)的…[注意:这里第一个 as 是副词, 作“一样”讲;第二个 as 是连词, 作“如同”、“像”讲。]

This line is as long as that one (is). 这条线和那条线同样长。

本句也可写成:This line is no less long than that one. 但是注意 as long as 还可用于条件状语从句。

Dying is as natural as living. 死和生一样, 都是自然现象。(意译)

He works as hard as we. 他工作和我们同样努力。

Wheel A revolves as fast as wheel B. A 轮和 B 轮旋转得同样快。

This is just as important an experiment as that. 这个实验和那个实验正好同样重要。

The speed of sound in water is about four times as great as in air. 声音在水中的速度比在空气中大三倍左右。(直译:…… 速度是在空气中的四倍左右。)

The temperature in the tower is as high as 500°C. 塔内温度高达500℃。

The art of paper-making was discovered as early as 1800 years ago. 远在一千八百年前就发明了造纸法。

He is as diligent as (he is) honest. 他又诚实又勤奋。

The garden is as still as still (can be). 这座花园再寂静不过了。

Her answer is as plain as plain can be. 她的答复再明白也没有了。

Einstein was as great a scientist as any(或 anybody)(else). 爱因斯坦是一位少有的伟大科学家

(b)not so as 不如(或没有)……那样……

Line AB is not so long as line CD. AB 线不如 CD 线(那样)长。

Wheel A does not revolve so fast as wheel B. A 轮没有 B 轮旋转那样快。

Man uses some non-metals not so widely as metals. 人类使用某些非金属,不如金属那样广泛。

Nothing is so precious as time. 时间最可贵。(原意为:没有东西象时间那样可贵了。)

The work did not go so smoothly as we hoped. 工作进行得没有我们希望的那样顺利。

None of the pure metals is so valuable to the industry as the alloys. 对工业来说, 没有一个纯金属像合金那样有价值。

(c) not as … as 和……不一样…(强调两者间的不同)

Line AB is not as long as line CD, but a little longer(或 shorter). AB 线和 CD 线的长度不一样,AB 线比较长一些(或短一些)。

Wheel A does not revolve as fast as wheel B, but much faster. A 轮和 B 轮的旋转速度不同,A 轮的旋转快得多。

注:上述两句中若没有接上 "but…", 则 not as … as 通常和 not so … as 同义, 都表示“前者不如后者…”含义。

B. 比拟

“as … + as + 所比拟的事物”的含义为“如…一样”

It is as white as snow. 其白如雪。

as quick as lightning 速如闪电

as light as a feather 轻如鸿毛

as hot as fire 热如火

Ⅴ. as, just as, much as 和 as if(或 as though)引出行为方式状语从句或表语从句。

A. as 按照……样子、方式、办法……

We must do as the doctor tells us. 我们必须按照医生嘱咐去做。

You must try to hold the tool as I do. 你必须试着像我这样握住这个工具。

Leave the things as they are. 让那些东西保持原状。(或:别动那些东西。)

The result of this experiment is good enough as it is. 照现在这样,这个实验的结果够不错了。

Everything happened as (had been) expected. 每件事情都按照所预料的发生了。

The letter reads as (what) follows. 那封信的原文如下。

上述最后两句里 as 后的省略成分, 在一般情况下, 不必把它们加进去。

Heat does not travel by convection in a solid, because the solid does not move as does a liquid. 热量在固体内不能靠对流传递, 因为固体不能像液体那样流动。(注意 as 引出的行为方式状语从句内有时可能有主、谓语颠倒现象. 本句末的 does 为代动词。)

B. 用 as…, (so)…;…as…;…just as…;just as…, so…表示出带有方式状语从句的主从复合句。

这里副词 so 的含义相当于 in the same proportion(按相同的比例或程度), in like manner(同样地), in the same way(以相同的方式或方法)。连词 as 作“如同“、”像”讲。as 前使用 just 是为了加强语气。有时主句中主语、谓语可能颠倒。例如:

As two is to three, so is four to six. 四比六等于二比三。

Air is to man as water is to fish. 空气对于人, 如同水对于鱼。

Most plants need sunlight just as they need water. 大多数植物正像需要水那样需要阳光。

Just as water is the most important of liquids, so air is the most important of gases. 空气是气体中最重要的一种, 正像水是液体中最重要的一种那样。

As you treat me, so I shall treat you. 你怎样对待我, 我也将怎样对待你。

As is the teacher, so is the pupil. 有什么样的老师, 就有什么样的学生。(或意译为:有其师必有其徒。)

注:注意由 as 引出的方式从句内有时省略主语。

Do as (it) seems best. 按看起来是最好的方式办事。

You must do so much as (it) is required of you. 你必须做要求你做的那么多的事。

C. 用 much as 引出从句, 表示“和…几乎一样”的比拟意味。例如:

We are dealing with something that flows along a conductor, much as water flows through a pipe. 我们正在研究沿着导体流动的一种东西, 这种情况和水通过管道的流动几乎一样。

D. as if 和 as though 好像…似的(从句一般用虚拟语气)[参阅第144节二]

Heat can flow from a hot body to a cooler body as if it were a fluid. 热好像流体一样, 能够从一个热的物体传到一个较冷的物体。

Man has to look after his rivers as if they were blood vessel in a human body. 人类必须照管好江河, 好像它们是人体内的血管。

She works hard as she never knew fatigue. 她努力工作, 仿佛她从来不知道疲倦那样。

注1:as if 比 as though 更为常用。注意现在也有人在 as if 后用陈述语气, 因为 as if 本身的语义已体现出后面的内容含有虚拟语气。例如:

It looks as if our team is (或 were) going to win. 看来我们队要赢。

注2:as if 后还可直接跟不定式。例如:

She opened her lips as if to say something. 她张开嘴, 好像要说些什么。

注3:注意 as if 或 as though 有时引出的从句省略了与主句相同的主语及其相应的 be 的变化形式。例如:

He reached out his hand as though (he was) trying to shake John by the hand. 他伸出乎似乎想和约翰握手。

五、用 as 引出宾语补语、主语补语

I. as 引出宾语补语的常用短语

We regard the sun as the chief source of heat and light. 我们把太阳看成是主要的热源和光源。

We consider radio waves as radiant energy. 我们认为无线电波是辐射能。

在科技文章里, 常见的有下列一些“动词(或短语动词)+ 名词(或代词)+ as + 宾语补语”这样的结构:

to accept… as 把……承认为, 承认……是

to define… as 把……解释为, 对……下的定义是

to consider… as 把……认为是

to refer to… as 把……指为(叫做)

to think of… as 把……看作

to treat… as 把……当做;以……来对待……

to describe… as 把……描述成

to regard… as 把……看成

II. as 引出的宾语补语有如下几种表示形式

A. as + 名词

We usually define energy as the ability to do work. 我们通常下定义说, 能能作功的本领。

B. as + 形容词

We often regard gas as compressible. 我们经常把气体看成是可压缩的。

We accept the conclusion as true. 我们承认这个结论是真实的。

C. as + 介词短语

We regard that conclusion as of consequence. 我们把这个结论看成是具有意义的。

D. as + 分词或分词短语

We consider the wire as disconnected. 我们认为这条线没有接好。

We consider this machine as representing the best one in our plant. 我们把这台机器认为是我们工厂里最好的一台。(或:……认为是代表我们工厂里最好的一台。)

E. 下列各句里 as 也引出宾语补语

The use of silver as a conductor is limited because of its cost. 由于成本高, 银作导体用是受到限制的。(as a conductor 作 silver 的补语, 可联系动词的搭配用法:to use silver as a conductor. 这里 as a conductor 作宾补。)

I make it as a rule to go to our workshop before 6∶00 every morning. 我总是每天早上六点前到车间去。(it 为形式宾语, 后面的不定式为真正宾语。直译:我每天早上六点前去车间, 这件事我已视为惯例。)

III. As 引同主语补语

上一节里的大部分句子都能变为被动态句子:

主动句:We regard the sun as the chief source of heat and light.

被动句:The sun is regarded as the chief source of heat and light (by us). 太阳被认为是主要的热源和光源。

主动句:We cannot consider this suggestion as established.

被动句:This suggestion cannot be considered as established. 这个提议不能(被)认为已成立了。

在主动句里, as 所引出的补语说明作宾语的 the sun 和 this suggestion, 所以叫做宾语补语。在被动句中, as 引出的补语变为说明作主语的 the sun 和 this suggestion, 所以叫做主语补语. 如果扩大主语补语概念, 对主语补足这个广义来看, 则下列各句内的 as 所引出的成分也可视为主语补语:

As members of the environment protection committee we must set up good example. 作为环保委员会成员, 我们必须树立好榜样. (从意义上也可理解为原因状语。)

Metallurgy as an applied science treats of the deriving of metals and their special properties. 冶金学作为一门应用科学, 是研究金属的提炼方法及其特性的。(从意义上也可理解为同位语。)

How can this be described merely as lacking of experience? 这怎么能说成只是缺乏经验呢?

We produce a lot of H2SO4, HCl and HNO3 which are known as the three main strong acids industry. 我们生产大量硫酸、盐酸和硝酸, 它们通称为工业中“三大强酸”。(省略 which are, 则 known as… 作后置定语。)

Ⅳ. 由 as 引出另一种形式的主语补语

I have come here as a manager. 我以经理的身份来到这里。

Many petroleum products serve as raw materials for the chemical industries. 许多石油产品用作各化学工业的原料。

When coal burns, part of it is left as ash. 煤在燃烧时, 它的一部分作为灰烬留了下来。

六、用 as 引出表语或表语从句

The society is as a stage. 社会好比是个舞台。

It may be as it you say. 这也许是你说的那样。

The answer is as it should be. 答案本应如此。

Things are not always as they seem to be. 事情并不总是像表面上看来的那样。

The room looks just as it did when her late husband worked in it. 这房间还是她的已故丈夫在那儿办公时的那个样子。

七、用 as 引出同位语

Derek told us about his experiences as a young man. 德立克告诉了我们有关他年轻时的一些经历。

Metals possess many special properties, as (或 such as) ductility, fusibility and malleability. 金属具有许多特有的性能,如延展性、可熔性和可锻性。

As an insulator, oil is better than air. 作为一种绝缘体来说, 油比空气好。

Sidney is their team leader, and as such has to sign this paper. 锡德尼是他们的队长, 而作为队长他就得在这文件上签字。

八、用 as 引出插入句

as 作“如同……那样, 正如……那样”解, 也可引出一个附带说明的句子, 表示说话人说出这句话的根据, 或对这句话的态度, 或作出某种解释或评论, 这种成分叫做插入句, 它一般必须用逗号隔开。

The difference, as I see it, is one of method and not of principle. 照我看来, 这是一个方法上, 而不是原则上的分歧。(one 代替 difference。)

As it is, we cannot go there. 就目前情况而言, 我们不能去那儿。

This old machine must be, as it appears to me, replaced by a computer-controlled machine. 依我看来, 这台旧机器必须换成一台由计算机控制的机器。

The products of the chemical industry make a major contribution to present-day standards of living, and life, as we know it today, would be impossible without those products. 化学工业产品对今日生活水平作出重要贡献, 并且正如我们目前所知道那样, 要是没有这些产品, 我们的生活就不可思议。

还有一种插入句形式的定语从句所表示的意思与上述例句很相似。参阅本节四-Ⅳ。

九、as 的其它用法

I. 在下列句子里 as 所引出的从句, 从句子结构来看是方式状语从句, 作“像……那样的”讲, 从意义来讲, 是定语从句。因此, 能领会其用法就行。

Copper as it comes from ordinary smelting works contains many impurities. 从普通熔炼厂出来的那样的铜, 含有许多杂质。

He wrote about China as it was thirty years ago. 他曾写过三十年前的中国。

II. 下列句子里的“as + 过去分词或过去分词短语”可用作定语

(联系下文,见本节[As 在各种句型和固定词组里的用法] 1、B):

See the answers as given at the end of this book. 请参阅本书末所给出的那些答案。

注 1:as 的基本含义是“像……那样的”。as given 之类的定语, 表示说话人对他所讲的话通过这样方式来加以解释, 对此提出他的看法, 或举例以证实他的观点。如果是平铺直叙的定语, 还可以把 as 取消。如:

See the answers given at the end of this book.

注 2:对于 the answers as given…, 也可以改为:the answers as they are given …。现在再举两个相类似的短语:

the elements as (they are) pointed out below. 如下面所指出的那些元素

the instruments as (they are) listed below. 如下面所列举的那些仪器

III. as many(用于可数名词)(与……)同样的, (与……)数相同的;as much(用于不可数名词)(与……)同量的;同样地

There are sixty tools in that workshop; and there are as many in ours. 那个车间有六十件工具;我们车间里也有同数量的工具(或也有六十件)。

He did it in three hours, but it took me as many days. 这件工作他用三小时做完, 可是却花了我三天(才把那件工作做完)。

Fix fifty hooks to as many ropes. 在这五十个钩子上, 每一个都系上一条绳子。(意译)

This car can run sixty miles in as many minutes. 这辆汽车在六十分钟里(或每小时)能跑六十英里。

I think as much. 我也这样想. (或译:我想到的也是这些。)

十、as 用法的判别

I. 注意 as 和其前后的有关词(如so, such, same, many, much 等)的内在联系。现以其中 as 和 such 的搭配为例, 来说明内在联系的变化。

X-rays can penetrate through many materials, such as wood, cloth and thin sheets of aluminium. X 射线能够穿透许多材料, 例如木材、布和薄铝板等。

The programmed robot is such as I have never seen before. 这样的程控机器人我从未见过。(意译)

Such materials as (are) copper and silver are called good conductors. 像铜和银那样的材料称之为良导体。

This is a new type of precision instrument, and as such it is quite widely used. 这是一种新型的精密仪器, 因而十分广泛地(被)使用。

上面四句都用了 as 和 such 两词, 但它们在各句中排列组合和前后的相互联系不全然相同, 意义就不同。

第 1、2 句中都用了 such as, 但第 1 句中, such as 前有一个逗号, 逗号前是复数名词, 这时 such as 后所列举的东西是前面 materials 的同位语。第 2 句的 such as 前没有逗号, such 在该句中只能作表语用, 其后面的 as 又只能是 such 的关系代词, 引出定语从句。这时 such 就只能作“这样的人、事、物”解。

第 3 句中的 as 前有个指示词 such, 由于 such 是定语, 后面与之呼应的 as 从句必然是进一步说明前面的 such 的, 故从句也是定语从句。判别时抓住 as 前面有没有这个指示词 such 即可, 但与第 2 句的差别在于第 2 句中的 such 单独作代词用, 作“这样的人、事、物”讲, 而第 3 句中的 such 是形容词。只作 “这样的”讲。故后面必有 such 所修饰的名词 materials。

第 4 句和前三句不同点是用了 as such, 而不是 such as。词序变了, 意思就变了。第 4 句表面上把 as such 译为“因而”, 这是翻译技巧问题。实际上该句原意仍是:“这是一种新型的精密仪器, 像这样的仪器它是十分广泛地被使用的。”

根据上述, 我们认为必须注意那些常用的一套一套的“排列组合”。

II. 根据上下文来判断 as 的语法功用。

单个 as 引出的从句有:时间从句、原因从句、让步从句、比较从句、方式状语从句、定语从句、表语从句和插入句(见本节、八)。由于在这些句中只有单个 as, 前后没有像 such, so, same, as, that, many, much 之类的有关词的搭配和衬托, 判别从句的语法意义就要靠上下文和逻辑性来进行。例如:

We cannot see sound waves as they travel through air. 当声波通过空气时, 我们并不能看见它。(时间从句)

As heat energy makes things move, it is a form of energy. 由于热能可使物体运动, 所以它是一种能。(原因从句)

注:用 as 引导的原因从句, 它与主句一般具有明显的因果关系。利用这一点, 就可基本上把 as 引导的原因从句和时间从句相区别开了。

Much as she would like to see this film, I am afraid she is too busy to go to the cinema. 虽然她特别愿意看这部电影, 但我恐怕她太忙, 去不了电影院。(让步从句)

When the circuit is closed, the battery sets these electrons in motion through the wires and motor back to the battery again, much as the pump sets the water in motion. 当电路闭合时, 蓄电池使电子流经电线和马达, 然后再返回蓄电池。这种情况和水泵使水流动的情况是十分类似的。(行为方式从句, 表示比拟)

The result of his research is good enough as it is. 照现在这样, 他的研究结果够不错了。(方式状语从句)

It may be as you say. 这也许是你说的那样。(表语从句)

Gases as we know, expand more rapidly than solids when they are heated. 据我们所知, 当受热时, 气体比固体膨胀得快。(插入句意味的定语从句)

第 1 句和第 2 句只能从句义来判别(见上面关于原因从句的注), 语法本身无能为力。

第 3 句 much 是句中状语。由于位置挪到 as 前面, 就构成让步从句的结构(见本节四、Ⅲ)。但第 4 句从表面上看, 也有 much as 形式, 但由于句中不需要 much 作动词的状语, 于是就不能构成让步从句的结构。这样就意味着用 much as(作“和……几乎一样”讲)引出一个行为方式从句, 表示出和主句的比拟。

第 5 句如果按原因、时间翻译, 句义怎么也讲不通, 也不合逻辑。如果按方式状语从句译, 正好讲得通, 这就表示对该句判别正确。

第 6 句中 as you say 非作表语从句分析不可, 否则该句子成了没有表语了。

第 7 句 as 引出的从句前后有逗号隔开, 一般说来, 作插入句的可能性就比较大了。但作插入句用还缺少一个宾语 them(作 know 的宾语)。可是, 就其从句意思来看, 倒可译为“据我们所知”。如果把该从句分析为 as 代替整个主句意思的定语从句(参阅本节一、Ⅳ), 也未尝不可。因此, 希望不必过多地抠语法分析, 能领会其意就可以了。

As 在各种句型和固定词组里的用法

现把上面的“As 的主要用法和判别”中提到的或没有提到的 as 在各种固定词组里的用法归纳如下:

1.

(A)单个 as 引出各种从句:

时间从句(见本节四、Ⅰ);

原因从句(见本节四、Ⅱ);

让步从句(见本节四、Ⅲ);

比较状语从句(见本节四、Ⅳ);

方式状语从句(见本节四、Ⅴ);

表语从句(见本节六);

定语从句(见本节二和三);

插入句(见本节八)。

同位语(见本节七)

(B)“as +过去分词短语”, 一般构成定语、状语、宾语补语、主语补语或有省略成分的从句:

He hopes we will be able to carry out everything as planned. 他希望我们能按计划行事。(状语)

The nucleus is heavy as compared with electrons. 和电子相比, 核就较重。(状语, 或相当于状语从句:if it is compared with electrons. )

The electrons, as shown in Fig. 5, are very light. 电子非常轻, 如图5所示。(定语或相当于非限制性定语从句。在后一种情况下, 从句中省略is, 而as代替主句整个意思。)

See the answers as given at the end of this book. 请参阅本书末给的答案。(定语)

We can think of an atom as made up of nucleus and electrons. 我们可把原子看作是由核子和电子组成。(宾语补语)

Matter is spoken of as electrically constituted. 我们说物质是由带电粒子构成. (主语补语)

If the separator is(或 goes)out of order, check and clean as(it is)required. 如果该分离器出故障, 则根据需要进行检查和清理。(省略句本身是状语从句。)

(C)“as +介词短语”(这种结构前后多半有逗号, 可译为“如…”、“像…”):

The flow of current in a semiconductor can be formed by a flow of negative charges, as in the case of conductors. 半导体中电流的流动, 像导体内情况一样, 是通过负电荷的流动而形成的。

As in the first method, the gas must be preheated to 150℃. 如同第一种方法, 该气体必须预热到150℃。

I heard the whir as from a car. 我听到了好像汽车的呼呼声。

Without intelligence and diligence on the part of the students, as indeed without the leadership and the coaching of the teachers, a good examination result will not come. 在部分学生身上, 如果他们没有智力和勤奋, 确实如同没有老师的指导和训练一样, 就不会有好的考试成绩.

2. as a matter of fact 事实上, 其实

As a matter of fact, mathematics finds its application in every science. 事实上, 数学在各门科学中都有它的用处。

As a matter of fact, I know nothing about the constructions of the information products. 其实我对这些信息产品的构造一无所知。

3. as a result 结果, 终于, 因此

She studied hard. As a result, she made fast progress in the studies. 她学习用功。因此她在学习方面进步很快。

The production has begun, as a result, to rise rapidly. 生产终于开始迅速地上升。(或译:结果是生产已经开始迅速上升。)

4. as a result(或 consequence)of…作为…结果, 由于…结果

As a result of(或 As a consequence of, In consequence of, Consequent upon)its rise in temperature the gas expands. 由于温度上升, 气体就膨胀。

Science means systematic knowledge possessed as a result(或 as a consequence) of practice and study. 科学是由于实践和研究的结果而获得的系统知识。

5. as a rule, 作为一个常规, 通常, 习以为常

As a rule, we keep records on all the experiments so that we may have enough data. 我们通常总是对所有的实验都作记录, 以便得到足够的资料。

They sum up their experience at the end(或 close)of every year as a rule. 他们通常年终总结经验。

6. as a whole 作为一个整体(来看)

We should analyse the problem as a whole. 我们应该把这个问题作为一个整体来分析。(状语)

He is to be responsible for the work as a whole. 他将要负责整个工作。(定语)

7. as above 如上

It has been explained as above. 这件事已在上面解释过了。

8. as against 与…对照, 与…对比

There are more than three hundred middle schools in Tianjin this year, as against only 80 before liberation. 今年天津有三百多所中学, 而解放前只有八十所。

The production of various electron tubes has been increased four times as against 1958. 电子管产量已比 1958 年增加了三倍。

9. as…as 像…一样, 如…一样(详见前文本节四、Ⅳ-A、B)

10。“as + 形容词(或副词)+as+形容词(或副词)” 又…又…

This method is as simple as practical. 这种方法又实用又简单。

The wheel turns as fast as stably. 这个轮子旋转得又快又稳。

11. as…as any (或 anybody) 不弱于任何的…, 史无前例的…

He is as great a scientist as any. (他是一位少有的大科学家。)

12. as…as anything 非常地…, 无可比拟地…

The work is as easy as anything. 这项工作特别容易。(相当于:…as easy as can be)

I will make it as clean as anything can be. 我将尽量把它弄干净。(也可改为:…as clean as possible。)

13. be as + 形容词(如 clear, easy 等) + as + 与前相同的形容词 + can be

The facts are as clear. 这些事实十分清楚。

14. as…as ever 像往常一样…

She works as hard as ever. 她工作一贯努力。(原义为:她和往常一样, 努力工作。也可写:She works as hard as before. )

15. as…as possible 尽可能地…

We should study as hard as possible. 我们应当尽可能地努力学习。

as soon as possible 尽可能早

as big as possible 尽可能大, 越大越好

as carefully as possible越仔细越好

16. as before 依旧

He gave the same answer as before(或 as ever). 他依然作了相同的答复. (原义:他给了与以前相同的答复。)

17. as compared with 和…相比

China today has produced much more steel as compared with China yesterday. 今天的中国已比过去的中国生产了多得多的钢。

18. as early as…早在…

As early as 1949, he suggested that plan. 早在 1949 年他就提出了那个计划。(1949 前不能用 in。)

19. as(或so)far as…is concerned(或 goes)就…而论

As (或 So) for as the quality of tones is concerned(或 goes), this radio-set is quite up to the standard. 就音质而论, 这架收音机已完全达到标准。

20. as(或so)far as we know. 就我们所知

As far as we know, not all of us realize the importance of this step. 据我们所知, 并不是我们中间每一个人都明瞭采取这一步骤的重要性。

Not so far as we know. 据我们所知, 并非这样。

21. as follows 如下

The text reads as follows. 原文如下。

22. As for(或 as to)至于, 讲到, 关于

As for(或 As to)physics, it is not difficult at all. 至于物理学, 那一点也不难。

As for us, we have no objection. 至于我们, 则并不反对。

23. as good as 跟…一样, 几乎等于

She is as good as her words. 她遵守诺言。(或译:她实践诺言。)

The noise of this machine is so low; it is as good as silent. 这台机器的噪音如此之低, 如同没有声音一样。

24. as if 好像…似的(参阅本节四、D)

25. as it does (或 did) 实际上(与现在分词短语连用时有原因意味)

The process involves as it does the oxidation of CO. 这个过程实际上涉及到 CO 的氧化。

The instrument is of great interest, involving as it does a new principle of work. 该仪器由于涉及新的工作原理而具有重要意义。

Living as we did in a remote village, we rarely had visitors. 由于当时我们住在偏僻的村庄, 所以很少有客人来访。(当涉及的主体是人时, 则用其相应的人称代词。同时还必须注意主句所用的时态。本句内谓语用过去时态, 就用 as we did. 如果谓语用现在时, 则就应该用 as we do.)

26. as it is(或 was) 1. 在句首, 作“但在实际上, 实际上”讲;2. 在句末, 作“照原来样子”讲;3. 与分词连用有原因意味。

As it was, we did help them. 事实上, 我们的确帮了他们。

Carry out the plan as it is. 请照原样执行计划。

It is good enough as it is. 照现在的样子够不错了。

Leave the things as they are. 别动这些东西。(直译为:让这些东西照样放在那儿。)

注意 it 不是一成不变的, 可根据它实际上所代表的名词, 改用 we, they, you, he 等其他人称。上句前面为 the things, 故后面用 they。

Burdened as he was, he could not walk fast. 由于负荷太重, 他不能走快。

27. as it were(插入语)仿佛, 好像, 可以说

The sky is covered, as it were, with a black curtain. 天空好像被黑幕遮住了似的。

28.

(a)as like as not 很可能;多半

As like as not, he is already there. 他很可能已在那儿。

(b)as likely as not 多半

She will fail as likely as not. 她多半会失败。

29.

(a)as long as…如同…之久;如同…长(引出比较状语从句)

Stay as long as you like. 你爱呆多久, 就呆多久。(句中 as you like 为比较状语从句)

So the tree’s shadow will also be three times as long as the tree is high. 因此, 树影长度将是树高的三倍。(第二个 as 引出比较状语从句。)

(b)as long as …当……时(引出时间状语从句)

I will fight for the cause of science and education as long as I live. 我活一天, 就要为科学和教育事业奋斗一天。

(c)so (或 as) long as…只要……(引出条件状语从句)

You may use that dictionary so (或 as) long as you keep it clean. 你可以用那本辞典, 只要你把它保持清洁。

上句中 as long as 和 so long as 还可用 if only 代替。

30. as many(与……)同样的;与(……)数相同的

Those five days seemed to me as many years. 那五天对我好像等于五年一样。

We expected to sell 500 tickets, but we sold twice as many. 我们原希望出售 500 张票, 但后来售出 500 张的两倍。

31. as many… as… 如…一般多…;凡…的…都

From this library you can borrow as many books as you want to read. 在这个图书馆内, 凡是你想读的书都能借到。

There are as many people in your class as in our class. 你班和我班的人数相同。

32.

(a)as many (或 much, fast 等) again as…两倍于, 是…的两倍, 多(或快)一倍

(b)half as many (或 much, fast 等) again as…是…的一倍半, 多(或快)半倍

(c)half as many(或 much, fast 等)as… 是…的一半

I have as many video discs again as he. 我有的影碟是他有的两倍。(表示:…比他多一倍。)(相当于:I have twice as many video discs as he)

Wheel A turns half as fast again as wheel B. A 轮转动比 B 轮快半倍。

They have produced half as much steel as we. 他们生产的钢比我们生产的少一半。

33. as matters stand 按目前情况来说

As matters stand, he does not like to make the plan public. 就目前情况而论, 他不愿公开那个计划。

34.

(a)as much(与…)同量的;同样地

Compared with steel, aluminium has a third its modulus of elasticity, weighs a third as much, and costs about three times as much. 与钢相比, 铝的弹性模数是钢的 1/3, 重量也是钢的 1/3, 而价格则是钢的三倍左右。

I was in the least not surprised, for I had expected as much. 我(丝)毫不惊奇, 因为我早已料到会有这样的事。(意思接近于 so much。)

I hope as much. 我也这样希望。

(b)as much…as… 如…一般多的…

On the moon itself the force of gravitation is one sixth as much as it is on the earth. 在月球上, 重力是地球上的六分之一。

You never get as much useful work out of a machine as you put into it. 你从机器得到的有效功, 永远不会等同于你输入的功。

35. as near as… 差一点…,几乎…

She was as near could be knocked down by a car. 她差一点被汽车撞倒。

36. as near as no matter 差一点…, 很接近于…

The child came as near as no matter being drowned. 这小孩差一点被淹死。

37. as of old 仍旧, 照旧

Such dresses are in fashion as of old. 这样一些服装仍然流行。

38. as often as not 常常, 屡次

We go to the exhibition hall as often as not. 我们常去展览馆。

39. as regards(或 concerns)+名词 至于, 提到, 关于, 就…说

As regards(或 concerns)that cutting machine, its moving parts have been worn out. 至于那台金属切割机, 它的活动机件已被磨损。

40. as shown…如…所示

The value of X, as (is) shown in Fig.2, is great. 如图 2 所示, X 值是大的。(引出非限制性定语从句)

41. as…(从句), so…(主句)如同……一样, ……

As the atom is the unit particle for elements, so the molecule forms an indivisible unit for compounds. 如同原于是元素的基本单位粒子一样, 分子形成了化合物的一个最小单位。

42. as soon as…(连接时间从句)一…就(参阅147三和四)

As soon as the experiment was over, we went to the library. 那个实验一完成, 我们就去图书馆了。

As soon as we disconnect one end of a wire leading to the electric-light bulb, the light goes out at once. 我们一把通电灯泡的一根金属线断开, 电灯立即熄灭。

Speak to Prof. Lu as soon as you can. 你尽早对卢教授去说。

辨异:Speak to her as fast as you can. 你对她说话, 能说多快就多快。

43. as soon as possible 尽早地

We must improve our equipment as soon as possible. (或 as soon as we can). 我们必须尽早改进设备。

44. as such 像这样的人、事、物;作为这样的人、事、物;以…资格、名义、身份;因而

He is our teacher, and as such must be respected. 他是我们的老师, 因此必须受到尊敬。

He was a foreigner and was treated as such. 他是外国人, 所以受到对待外国人的待遇。

History as such was often neglected. 以往历史本身常被忽视。

Wealth, as such, doesn't matter much. 单是有钱财算不了什么。

45. as the case may be 看情况, 随机应变地

In taking a picture, the shutter, the focal length and the other things must be adjusted as the case may be. 在拍照过程中, 快门、焦距等等, 必须按实际情况加以调整。

He arranges matters as the case may be. 他按照实际情况安排事情。

46. as things are 就目前情况而论

As things are, we cannot put the plan into pratice. 就目前情况说来, 我们还不能将此计划付诸实施。

47. as things go 按事态发展来看

As things go, they are looking at this problem. 就事态发展来看, 他们正在分析这个问题。

48. as though…(行为方法状语从句)好像……似的(用法同 as if, 详见上文第 24 条)

49. as to 关于, 至于

As to this home computer, it can be guaranteed for one year. 至于这台家用计算机, 它能保修一年。

A question arises as to how we shall refit the equipment. 关于如何改装那个装置的问题提出来了。(as to 接一个介词宾语从句。)

50. as touching (或 concerning) + 名词 关于…, 有关…,涉及…

Please inform me as touching (或 concerning) the matter. 关于那件事的情况, 请你通知我。

51. as usual照例, 照常

He arrived on schedule (或 on time) as usual. 他照常准时到达。

The notebook computer operates well as usual. 这台笔记本电脑与平时一样, 运转良好。

52. as well 又, 也, 同样

He speaks English as well. 他也讲英语。

The board president has knowledge and experience as well. 这位董事长既有学问, 又有经验。

This law is true of other gases as well. 该定律也适用于其它气体。

Not only does the distance travelled in unit time remain the same but the direction as well does not change. 不仅单位时间内的移动距离不变, 而且其方向也不变。(由于 Not only 在句首, 后面主、谓语要用颠倒语序。)

53. as well as 和…一样, 不但…而且…

He works as well as he can. 他尽可能地做好工作。

You workd as well as he. 你和他都一样工作。(原义:他工作, 而你也工作。)

Those Chinese pupils study English as well as Chinese. 那些中国学生不仅学汉语, 而且还学英语。(注意先译后面的 Chinese, 然后再译前面的 English。)

He has skill as well as knowledge. 他既有学问, 又有熟练技能。

Air, as well as water, is needed to make plants grow. 空气同水一样是植物生长所必需的。(注意句中两个逗号也可不用。后面不能用are。)

Small towns as well as big cities are being rapidly industrialized. 小城镇和大城市一样, 都在迅速地工业化。

The three gas laws are true of all gases, as well as of air. 气体三定律适用于空气, 也适用于所有气体。

We can turn electric energy into light energy as well as into heat energy. 我们不但能把电能转化为热能, 也能转化为光能。

He agrees with you, as well as I. 不但我同意你, 他也同意你。

He agrees with you, as well as with me. 他不但同意我,也同意你。

54. as yet 到目前为止

He has not finished the work as yet. 他到现在还没有完成那项工作。

The laptop (computer) has worked well as yet. 到目前为止这台膝上型电脑运转正常。

55. according as…(从句)随…而定, 依照…

The thermometer rises or falls according as the air is hot or cold. 温度表随着空气的热冷而升降。

56. in as much as…(引出原因从句)因为…

In as much as the pressure increases with depth, there is a greater pressure at the lower surface of the submerged body than at the upper surface. 因为压力随深度而增加, 所以浸入水中的物体的底面所受到的压力比顶面大。

57. In so far as …(从句)在……范围内, 在……限度内

Insofar as I can see, they are all satisfied with this arrangement. 据我了解, 他们对这一安排都感到满意。

58. be known as 叫做, 通称为

This microcomputer is known as a palmtop PC. 这个微型计算机叫做掌上型电脑。

59. just as well 正因如此

Since water is so universally present, perhaps it is just as well that its properties have been studied. 因为水到处存在, 也许正因为如此, 对水的性质已经作了研究。

60. just as with… 正如同…一样(比较状语)

Just as with the parallel water pumps, the currents from these parallel generators will add together to make a total flow of 100 amperes. 正如同并联的水泵一样, 这些并联的发电机所产生的电流将加在一起, 以构成 100 安培的总电流。

61. may as well, might as well(后者婉转)还是……好, 不妨, 也好

You may (或 might) as well repeat the experiment. 你还是把这个实验重做一次为好。

You may as well begin at once. 你不妨立即着手。

62. may (或 might) as well…as (…)与其(…)宁肯…做为好

One may as well not know a thing at all as know it imperfectly. 与其一知半解, 不如完全不知为好。

You might as well advice me to give up my plan as my argument. 你要我放弃我的论点, 还不如要我放弃我的计划。(句中 might 并不表示过去时, 而是虚拟语气, 实际上表示:要我放弃自己论点和计划均不可能。)

63. no…so…as (…) 没…像(…)那样

No substance so completely permeates our lives as do water, air and the like. 没有一种物质像水、空气等那样为我们生活所必不可少。(as 引出的比较状语从句内有主、谓语颠倒现象。其中 do 为代动词。)

64. not so…as (…)不如(…)那样…

He does not study so hard as you. 他学习不如你用功。

65. not so much as…甚至连…也不, 竟未…

He does not so much as understand this law. 他甚至连这个定律都不了解。

There is not so much as an error in his answer. 他的回答连一个错也没有。

注:当 not so much 和 as 分开时, 其用法有异。例如:

The oceans do not so much divide the world as unite it. 与其说海洋分割世界, 还不如说海洋连接世界。

66. not so much…as… 与其说……不如说……(这里 not so much 相当于 less, 而 as 相当于 than。)

He is not so much a teacher as a writer. 与其说他是教师,不如说是作家。(=He is less a teacher than a writer. )

A man’s worth lies not so much in what he has as in what he is. 一个人的价值不在于他拥有什么, 而在于他是什么样的人。(句中两个 what 分别作 in 的介词宾语从句。)

67. same …as…(接定语从句)和……相同的(参阅本节一)

I am reading the same book as you read yesterday. 我正在读的书就是你昨天读的那本书。

68. so as to (后接不定式动词)为的是, 以便…;以致…

We must go early so as to be in time. 我们必须早去, 才能准时。(目的状语)

He worked hard so as to end the task with success. 他努力干, 终于胜利完成了任务。(结果状语)

69. so…as to(接不定式动词)如此地…以致…;若前与 be 连用, 则表示祈使句中“请”之意。例如:

He wrote so carefully as to make every word clear. 他写得如此地小心, 所以每个单词都很清晰。

Heat treatment is used so as to improve the properties of some metals. 使用热处理可改进某些金属的性能。

Petroleum maybe of low viscosity or so viscous as to be nearly im-mobile. 石油有低粘度的, 也有粘得几乎不能流动的。

Be so kind (或 good) as to help me in doing (或 making) the sum. 劳驾帮我算一下。

70. so long as…(条件从句)只要…(上文第 29 条)

Every wire carrying an electric current has a magnetic field so (或 as) long as the current flows. 只要有电流通过, 每根带电的金属丝都产生磁场。

71. so (或 as) far as…(条件从句)就…而论

So (或 As) far as the quality of tones is concerned, this radio set is quite up to the standard. 就音质而论, 这台无线电完全达到标准。

The scientific research is well on the way so far as I know. 据我所知, 这项科学研究正蓬勃开展。

72. such as…像…那(或这)样的(详见本节二)

73. such…as 像…那(或这)样的(详见本节二)

74. such (…) as to + 不定式短语 如此的…以致(结果状语)

This problem is such as to interest only a few people. (= It is such a problem as to interest only a few people.) 这样的问题只能使少数人感兴趣。(联系第53节二、Ⅶ-C 第 4 句)

75. without so much as + 动名词短语 甚至连…也不;竟然没有……

He left the room without so much as closing door. 他连门都没关就离开了房间。

She went away without so much as saying good-bye. 她竟然不辞而去。

At 的基本含义及其搭配用法分类

一、介词 at 用于表示时间的一个点

at six o'clock 在六点钟;

at noon (或 midnight) 在中午(或半夜);

at day break (或 dawn) 在破晓(或黎明)时;

at sunrise (或 sunset) 太阳升起(或落山)时;

at the beginning (或 end) of the meeting 会议开始(或结束)时;

at the weekend = <美> on the weekend 在周末;

at the same time (或 that time) 同时(或在那时);

at (the) present (time)当前;

at the age of ten (年龄)十岁时等

二、at 用于表示地点的一个点

at Beijing Hotel 在北京饭店;

at Tianjin University 在天津大学;

at the hospital 在医院;

at the office 在办公室;

at the club 在俱乐部;

at London Airport 在伦敦机场;

at the network information center 在网络信息中心等

注1:除了 at London Airport 以外,上述其余举例中都可用介词 in 代替 at。只是用 in时,侧重表示在某一封闭的范围内。

注2:到达大城市上海用 arrive in Shanghai,而到达小地方廊坊镇则用 arrive at Langfang. 其理由是把小城镇看成点。

注3:如果 at 后接某人姓的所有格或某种行业人员的所有格,就可表示某人的住处或某种行业的店铺。例如 at Mr. white's 在怀特先生家;at his uncle's 在他叔叔家;at the tailor's 在裁缝店;at the barber's 在理发店;at the grocer's 在食品杂货店等。

三、at 用于无法按面积或空间划定范围的某处(如“在公共汽车站”等)

at the bus-stop 在公共汽车站;

at the door (或 the entrance) 在门口(或入口处);

at the window 在窗户旁边;

at the foot of the hill 在山脚下;

at the top of the mountain 在山顶上[侧重表示在山顶这个高度上];

on the top of the mountain 在山顶这块表面上;

at page 6 在第 6 页上等

四、at 用于会议、宴会、婚礼、茶话会等名词前面

at the meeting (或 the conference)在会上(或在学术会议、调查会上);

at a banquet (或 a feast) 在一个宴会(或宴席)上;

at the wedding 在婚礼上;

at the tea party 在茶话会上;

at the press conference 在新闻发布会上等

五、at 用于价格、速度以及其它任何物理量数值之前以表示一个点

at any cost (或 rate)不惜任何代价(或不管怎样);

at a rapid rate 以飞快的速度;

at a temperature of 30℃ 在30℃时;

at a distance 在一定距离处;

at hand 在身边[由“近在乎边”引申过来];

at sea level 在海平线上;

keep sb. at arm's length 避免同某人亲近[由“保持一臂距离”引申过来]等

六、at 与动词连用时可表示动词动作所对准的目标或目的物

look at …观看 (黑板即 the blackboard);glance at…一瞥(那张画);stare at…盯着看(某人、某物);aim at… 瞄准…;point at… 指着…;fire (a gun) at…向…开火;shoot at… 向…射击;go at sb. 向某人扑去;run at… 向某人冲去;rush at sb. 某人冲去;jump (或 leap) at… 跃向(某人),找某人岔子,欣然抓住(机会等),急忙接受(建议、工作等);fly at… 飞快扑向(某人);cut at sb. 向某人砍去;throw (或 fling) out questions at sb. 随即向某人(激烈地)发问;get at sb. 指责、攻击或纠缠某人;talk at sb. 指桑骂槐说某人;laugh at sb. 嘲笑某人;shout at sb. 对着某人喊叫;knock (或 beat, hammer, pound) at the door敲打(门等);work (或 labour, go, hammer) at… 对(英语)下功夫或推敲研究 estimate… at… 把…估计为…;rate (或 value)… at… 将…评价(或估价)为…;guess at…猜测(年龄、价格等);grasp at… 抓住(绳子即 a rope 或机会即 the chance);catch (或 dive) at a chance 抓住(或扑过去抓住)机会;pull at the rope用力拉或拉住绳子;come (或 get) at the meaning of the word 理解到这个词义等

七、be good (或 bad,quick 等) at… 结构中 at 仍表示“对准其中某点”而言

be good at…(他)擅长(汉语);

be bad at… 他(日语)差或不好;

be quick (或 slow) at translation(他们)翻译快(或慢);

be expert at English(他)对英语很专长;

be skillful at typing 对打字很熟练等

注:有时和某些名词连用,at 也有上述类似用法。例如:be an expert (或 a genius) at French(她)是对法语有专长(或天才)的人;take aim at the enemy 瞄准敌人等

八、at 作“对于”讲及与喜怒哀乐的形容词及相应的名词或介词短语连用时的搭配用法举例

be shocked (或 disappointed) at the news(她)对这消息感到震惊(或失望);

be glad (或 pleased,delightcd) at…对…感到高兴;

be sad (或 miserable) at… 对…很难过(或伤心);

be angry (或 disgusted) at… 对…生气(或厌恶);

feel one's surprise at… 对(这事故即 the accident)感到惊讶;

talk of one's disappointment at …谈及自己对……的失望;

show one's pleasure at… 对……显示很高兴;

be grief at… 对(某人的去世即 sb's death)感到悲伤;

be in high spirits at… 对(远大的前程即 a great future)心境很佳等

九、对于“at + 形容词最高级”结构的理解和推广,这里形容词最高级前省略 the。这表明已转化为名词,并且表示一个极限点,故前用 at 十分合理

at (the) most 至多;

at (the) least 至少;

at longest 最长或最久时;

at earliest (或 latest) 最早(或最晚);

at worst 最坏情况下;

at sb's best 在某人最好或全盛时;

at best 最好情况下或充其量;

at widest 最宽处;

at the very outside 至多,充其量[一种类似的用法]

十、“a + 冠词 + 动作名词”作“一…就”讲时的搭配用法举例

at (the) first 最初,起初;

at (the) first sight (或 glance,appearance)乍一看;

at a moment's notice 一通知就…;

at the beginning (或 start) 一开始便…;

at sb's request (或 invitation)应某人要求(或邀请);

at the thought of… 一想到(某人、某事);

at a guess 猜一下或粗略估计等

注:但 at a loss 却作“不知所措”讲,表示一种失落感。有时还表示“吃亏、受损失”。

十一、表示状态用的“at + 抽象名词”结构常用千作表语、补语、后置定语、状语

be at rest 处于静止状态;

be at peace (或 war)处于和平(或交战)状态;

at will 任意地,随意地[由“处于听从意志安排”引申过来];

at random 胡乱地,杂乱无章;

be at fault 有过错;

be at (one's) studies 在学习;

be at work (或 school, college) 在工作(或上学,上大学);

be at table (或 meal,dinner) 在吃饭;

be at breakfast (或 lunch)在吃早饭(或午饭等);

What are you at? 你在干什么?

be at a lecture 在听讲座或讲课;

be at high tide(改革等)处于高潮等

十二、几个例外情况

at large 消遥法外,充分或详细地,总的来说[必须结合上下文选择语义];

at length 最终,详细地,噜嗦地[同上];

at heart 在内心里,实际上[同上]

Away 的搭配用法及其分类理解

一、副词 away 和不少动词连用表示多种多样的“离开”举例。若后接 from…,则表示“离开…”之意

back away a step 往后退一步;

back the boat away from the pier 驾船倒退驶离码头;

be… away(教室)离这里(50米),(她的生日)离现在(一个月);

be… away 他离开(或缺席);

break away (小偷即 the thief) 挣脱逃走,破除或不遵守陈规戒律(后加 from the old rules),脱离该俱乐部(后加 from the club);

come away(轮子即 the wheel)脱落; come (或 go) away(她)同(小孩)一起离开;

drive away(他)开车离开;

get away 离开,脱身,休假,get (v.) away…(她)摆脱(某人),回避(事实),使(她的小孩)离开(俱乐部);

get away with…(他)同(妻子)外出,(小偷)携带(珠宝等)逃走,(他)受到(警告即 warning);

keep (v.) away from… 不靠近(火),不抽烟(后加 smoking),让(孩子)离开或不靠近(江河);

make away (或 off)(孩子)急忙地跑掉;

pass away(某人)离世或去世,(20年)过去;

pull away (某人)领先或离开,不断地划船[常用进行时];

ride away (或 off) 乘车(或骑车,骑马)离开;

run away (或 off) 跑掉,逃离,逃离家(后加 from home);

shoot away (或off)(小孩、兔子等)急速离开[英语用shoot(射击)表示离开动作之快];

walk away (或 off) 步行,走开,轻易或不费劲地获奖(后加 with the prize. 转义用法)等

二、away 与有关动词搭配表示“不出席、避开、不靠近、拉开距离”时用法举例

be away last week with flu(她)上周因流感缺席(或未出席)[过去一般时];

move (或 draw) away from sb.(他)拉开和(某人)的距离;

keep (或 remain) away from the meeting(她)没有出席会议;

keep away from such a drink 避开这样一种饮料;

sit (或 stand) away from her 坐(或站)得离她远一点;

stay away from school (或 the meeting)(她)缺课或未出席(会议)等

三、away 和有关动词搭配表示“消散、衰退、渐弱、渐息、消瘦”等时的用法举例

clear (v.) away(云即 the clouds)消散,(怀疑即 the doubt)消失,(警察)驱散(群众);

die away(风、声)渐息,(旧的风俗习慣即 the old customs)衰退;

fall away(她的脸)消瘦,(风)减弱,(标准即 the standard)降低,(数量)减少;

I take…(药)使(疼痛即 the pain)消失;

go (或 pass) away (或 off)(疼痛)消失,(雨)停止;

waste away(某人)在消瘦[进行时],(她的体力即 her strength)渐弱;

wear (v.) away(她)消瘦,(雨)磨损(岩石即 rocks)等

四、away 与有关动词搭配中表示“…掉、…去、…走”等含义时用法举例

argue away…(他不能)辩解掉(这些事实即 the facts);

blow (v.) away(我的帽子)吹跑了[过去时,也可用被动态],(这个运动即 the movement)扫除掉(陈腐的东西即 the cobwebs)[常用于转意:出去散步透透空气];

bring away… (= come away with…)(他)带走或带回(一个很好的想法即 a good idea);

break away… 折断或折掉(树枝即 the branches);

burn away (一瓶油即 a bottle of oil) 烧掉了[过去时或完成时];

be called away (他)被叫走;

call away…(闹声即 the noise)转移(她的注意即 her attention);

carry away… 带走(书),搬走(桌子),(洪水即 the flood)冲走(许多房子);

cast (或 throw, fling)… 扔掉或丢掉(旧书);

clear away… 清除掉(垃圾即 the rubbish),排除掉(困难),收拾走(书、报等);

come away (轮子即 the wheel) 脱落,她会后离开(后加 after the meeting);

cut away… 切除掉(肿瘤即 the tumour),砍掉(树等);

eat away 腐蚀掉(一些金属即 some metals),(老鼠)啃坏(桌子等);

get… away(我)将(画)拿掉,(她)将(小孩)带走;

give away…(他)失掉(机会),(他)泄露(秘密即 the secret),(我)赠送(新书),(她)颁发(奖即 the prizes)[均由“把…给掉”引申过来];

improve away…(他)通过改进来去掉(缺点即 his short coming);

pay away…(我)付掉(我一半的收入即 half my income);

send away… 把(货物)发走,将(这男人)打发走;

sweep away(灰尘即 the dirt),(强风)将(云即 the clouds)驱走;

talk away(他们)通过谈话消除掉(恐惧即 the fear),(我们)谈话花掉(两小时);

tear away… 撕掉(包装用纸即 the wrapping paper),拽走(某人);

wash (v.) away(道路即 the road)冲毁掉了[过去时],(这不能)洗掉(他的错误);

wipe away…(雨)擦掉(足迹即 the footprints),(她)擦去(汗水即 her sweat)等

五、用“有关动词+ away +表示时间、金钱等名词”表示“通过有关动作浪费时间、金钱”等含义时的用法举例

cast (或throw) away… 浪费(时间、钱等);

drink away… 喝酒消磨(时间);

laugh away… 以说笑消磨(两个小时);

pass (v.) away…(他)消磨(许多时间),(这30年)过去了[完成时],(她)去世[过去时];

play away…(他们)玩掉(整个上午),赌掉或输掉(许多钱);

wear away…(他们)在辩论中花费(许多时间)[后加 in the arguing]等

六、away 和有关动词搭配表示“收拾、存放、收藏、隔离”等时的用法举例。这时 away 的含义由“离开或向另一边→在别处→在适当地方”引申过来

clear (v.) away (或 off)(我)收拾(菜盘即 the plates),(母亲)饭后收拾(后加 after dinner);

lay away… 把(书)放在一边,存(钱等),为顾客存留(货物)[后加 for the customer];

be laid away 被埋葬在那边(后加 there),lock away 把(钱)锁起来,将(私密)藏在心中(后加 in the heart),将(某人)关押或送入精神病医院(结合上下文翻译);

put away… 贮存(水果等),存放(钱等),收拾(玩具即 the toys),收拾(某人)[指将某人关起来或送往精神病医院等];

take away… 收拾(盘碟即 the dishes);

shut away… 将(好书)珍藏起来,将(某人)禁闭、关押或隔离等

七、away 作“向另一方向”或“向另一边”讲时与有关动词连用举例

face away from…(她)将脸转过去避开(我),(这个花园即 the garden)一侧有(一条河)[意译];

look away from me to the girl(他)视线从我身上转移到那个女孩身上;

turn (v.) away(他)把(汽车)转向一侧,(她)往侧面转身;

(他们)使(讨论即 the discussion)离(题即 the topic)[后加 from the topic]等

八、away 在和有关动词搭配表示“不断地、不停地”时的用法举例

bargain (v.) away for…(她们)不断地讨价还价(10分钟即 ten minutes),(她)以(词典)换取(书);

boil away(水)一直开了(三分钟)[用进行时],(水)煮干了[完成时];

burn (v.) away(火)在不停地烧[进行时],(火)烧了(一小时)[过去一般时],(太阳)把(皮肤即 the skin)烧坏;

drink away(他们)不停地喝酒[进行时],(他)喝酒消(愁即 his sorrow),(他)把(财产即 his fortune)喝光;

drive away at one’s work 孜孜不倦地工作;

eat (v.) away (海水)不断地侵蚀着(礁石即 rocks)[进行时],(这小孩在这里)不停地吃;

fire (或 shoot)(他们)在不断地射击[进行时];

laugh (v.) away(她)不断地在笑[进行时],(他)借笑驱走(恐惧即 his fears);

pull away(他们)不停地划船离开,(汽车)离开停车场(后加from parking place);

work away(她)一个劲地干下去,(他的嘴即 his mouth)不停地抽动;

write away(他)整个下午一直在不停地写[现在完成进行时]等

注意“同一个动词 + away with…”结构,由于上下文不同其含义各异:

a. We did away with the old laws. 我们废除了这些旧的法律。

b. The criminal did away with a child. 这罪犯杀害了一个小孩。

c. She did away with herself by taking poison. 她服毒自杀。

a. She went away with her mother. 她跟她的母亲一起走了。

b. The young man went away with the funds. 这个男青年偷窃基金逃走。

c. The young man went away with her daughter. 这个男青年带走了她的女儿。(含“私奔或拐走”之意。)

d. We all went away with something to think over. 我们带着要仔细考虎的事离开了。

e. Don't go away with the idea that you won't be criticized for your mistake. 不要以为你犯了错误不会受到批评。

Back 的搭配及其引申用法的理解

Back 主要作副词用,但还可兼名词、形容词和动词。这里仅讨论其副词的丰富多彩用法。

一、副词 back 与有关动词搭配,表示“向后面、往后退或往回退、在后面”含义时的用法举例

call (v.) back(在对方打来电话以后我)回电话;

bear back so that the car may pass. 往后挤,让这辆汽车通过。come back(她)回来,(短裙子即 short skins)重新流行;

drive (v.) back 驾车回去,(他)开车把(某人)送回去;

drop (或 fall) back(价格)回落;

fall back(人群即 the crowd)后退,(敌人)退却,(我)往后摔倒;

draw (或 pull) back (人群)往后撤,(他)背弃协议(后加 from the agreement. 由“退离…”引申过来);

get back (或 Stay back)! 后退(或呆在后面)!get back into bed 回去睡觉;

get back to…(他)重返(故乡即 his hometown),(她)再次找(你)谈谈(尤指通电话);

go back(你)回去,(你们)后退两米(后加 two meters);

go back from…(他)背弃(合同即 the contract 或朋友);

go back to… 回到(上海或那个话题即 the topic)(他)回到(他的妈妈)身边;

He was back at nine o’clock. 他九点回来的。How far is it to Tianjin and back? 去天津来回有多远? The boy is back in his work. 这男孩学业落在后面。keep back! 别往前走!look back 往后看;

move (v.) back 往后退,(他)将(他的部下即 his men)调回来;

put back(船)返航进入港口(后加 into the port)或回到岸边(后加 to the shore);

ride back 骑马、骑车或乘车回去;

run back 跑回来,开车回来;

We won't stand (或 sit) back if you punish your brother. 如果你惩罚你的兄弟,我们不会坐视不管。

The information center stands (或 sits) back the road. 信息中心的位置离马路有一段距离。step (或 stand) back 后退或往后站;

turn back(她)回来,翻到(第六页)(后加 to page six);

walk back 步行或(走)回来等

二、副词 back 和有关动词搭配,表示“叫回、带回、送回、放回、收回、调回、搬回、退回、取回、交回(或交还)、撤回、回请”等含义时的用法举例

ask (或 have) sb. back 回请某人;

call sb. back 把某人叫回来,10分钟后再给某人打电话(后加 in ten minutes),收回(错误的想法即 the wrong idea);

bring… back 将(这些光盘即 VCDs)带回来;

bring sb. back a cup of tea 给某人带一杯茶来;

draw… back 拉回或拉开(窗帘即 the curtain),(他)缩回(脚即 his foot);

bed riven back(敌人)被迫后退;

feed (v.) back to… 将(信息即 the information)反馈给(公司),(无信息即 no information)反馈给(公司);

fling (或 throw) sb. back the ball 把球扔回给某人;

fling (或 throw) back one’s head 猛然或很快回首;

get (或 have) the money back 收回或取回这笔钱;

get (或 give, hand)… back to sb. 将(钥匙即 the key)交还给某人;

lay the baby back on the bed 将婴儿送回到床上;

move (v.) back 调回(坦克即 the tanks),搬回(桌子);

pull… back 将(钟即 the clock)往回拨一小时(后加 one hour),撤回(兵力即 one’s forces),从火焰中拉回或拉出(几个女孩即 a few girls)(后加 from the flames);

pay the money back to sb. 将钱付还给某人;

put… back 将(书)放回原处(后加 where they were),将(表)往回拨2小时(后加 two hours);

pass (或 play) the ball back to sb. 将球传回给某人;

place… back 将(戒指即 the ring)放回到(匣子)中(后加 in the box);

report… back to sb. 向某人汇报(调查结果即 the fin dings);

send… back 将(信件)退回,(也可用 pass the letter back),将(小孩)送回到(他的母亲)(后加 to his mother);

(卫星即 the satellite)将(照片即 the pictures)发送回来;

set… back 将(桌子)往后摆一点(后加 a little),将(表)往回拨(或拨慢)一小时;

take… back 接回(女孩),收回(房子)(因未按期付款),将(书)还给图书馆(后加 to the library);

welcome sb. back to… 欢迎某人再来(北京);

write back 写回信,写回信给某人(后加 to sb.)等

三、副词 back 本意不变,跟有关动词搭配时表示“回击、击退、回嘴(或顶嘴)、回敬、报复”之意

answer (或 talk) sb. back 对某人顶嘴或回嘴;

beat back… 击退(敌人即 the enemies),(火焰即 the flames)使(消防人员即 the firemen)往后退;

fight back against the enemy 回击敌人;

hit (或 strike) sb. back 回击或反击某人;

get back at sb. 向某人报复;

throw back the enemy 很快击退敌人;

pay the enemies back for their trick(我们)回惩敌人的阴谋诡计;

pay sb. back for his help 报答某人的帮忙;

give (或 pay) back the enemies blow for blow(我们)对敌人以牙还牙(由“以打击对付打击回敬或报复敌人”引申过来)等

四、副词 back 与有关动词搭配,表示“追溯到、回忆起、回想起…”含义时的用法举例

bring back …to sb’s mind(这)使某人回忆起(童年时代即 the childhood)(由“把…带回到脑海中”引申过来);

cannot call her face back 不能回想起她的容貌(由“不能将…呼唤回来”引申过来);

carry sb. back to his(或 her)youth(这本书)使某人回忆起青年时代(由“将某人带到青年时代”引申过来);

Let’s throw (或 cast) our thoughts (或 minds) back to the last meeting. 让我们回忆最后一次会见。(意译);

Their names came back to her soon. 她很快回想起他们的名字。

It came back to me when she taught us English. 我回忆起何时她教我们英语。

go back to one’s younger days 追溯或回忆年轻时代;

Those photographs took her back to her childhood. 那些照片使她回忆起她的童年。

look back on (或 upon) one’s youth 回忆青年时代等

五、副词 back 与有关动词搭配,由其本意“往回”引申为“回原处或回原状”时的用法举例。这时动词短语常有“恢复、重新、再……”含义

The doctor brought (或 put, pulled) her back to health. 医生使她恢复了健康。(由“重新把我带、拉到健康状态”引申过来。)

check back tomorrow about this matter 明天再联系这件事;

get (或 call) sb.’s strength back(这药即 this medicine)恢复了某人的体力[过去时];

come back into fashion(那种服装款式即 that style of dress)重新流行起来[现在完成时];

give sb. his (或her) good spirits back(假日旅行即 the holiday travel)恢复某人的良好情绪;

go back to…(小孩)重返家中[后接 the family];

He can put back all the weight he lost in the past two months. 他能恢复最近两个月减去的体重。

Put (或 Bring, Take, Get) the letter back where you found it after you read it. 看完信后请将信重新放回(或带回、拿回、退回)到你先前发现信的地方。

六、副词 back 与有关动词搭配,表示“耽误、推迟、抑制、忍住、阻拦、隐瞒、紧缩、减少”含义时用法举例

bite back the complaints on the tip of the tongue(她)把到嘴边的怨言咽了下去;

cut back… 将(电线即 the wire)剪短,将(支出即 the expenses)削减(转译);

fight back 忍住(笑即 one’s laughter),抑制(做某事的欲望即 the desire to do sth.);

keep (或 hold) back… 抑制(怒火即 one’s anger),(警察即 the policemen)阻拦(人群即 the crowd),(河堤即 the banks of the river)阻挡(洪水即 the flood),(雨)耽误(我们),(她)对我隐瞒(这些事实)(后加 fromus. 由“使这些事实与我们保持隔开”引申过来);

pull back on one’s spending 紧缩(开支)(由“将…往回拉→紧缩”演变过来);

put back…(战争)使(经济增长即 the economic growth)耽误30年[用过去时。后接 by 30 years]等

Be 的九种基本用法和判别

一、be 的基本用法

I. “be + 状语”表示地点,可用副词或介词短语表示。

Their credit cards are here. 他们的信用卡在这里。

The samples are on the working table. 样品在工作台上。

II. “be + 名词、形容词或介词短语等”作表语。

The information-base industry is useful. 信息密集产业是有用的。

Our victory is a great victory. 我们的胜利是伟大的胜利。

Information technology is of special importance. 信息技术特别重要。

III. “be + 过去分词”一般系被动语态。

Work is done when an object is lifted. 当举起一个物体时就做了功。

The elevated highway was built in 1998. 这条高架公路建于1998年。

This book will be translated by Jenny and Linda. 这本书将由詹妮和琳达来翻译。

The five-year plan has been worked out. 五年计划已经制定。

Place the level to be adjusted on a plate. 将那个要(被)调整的水平仪放在一块板上。(后置定语)

Ⅳ. "be + -ing" 一般表示正在进行时态。

They are designing a supermicro computer. 他们正在设计一台超微型电脑。

This kind of washer was being designed by the senior engineers. 当时这种洗衣机正由那些高级工程师在设计。

注:要用逻辑判别方法把 -ing(动名词) 作表语的情况与本句型区分开。例如:Our task is building a new TV tower. 我们的任务是建立一个新的电视塔。(由于主语 task 产生不了“正在建设”这个行为,故从逻辑上就可判定谓语不能构成进行时态。)

Ⅴ. “be + 动词不定式”一般用来表示计划、安排或约定将要实行的行为。

The method is to be described in detail. 这种方法将予以详细说明。

The main building is to be ten stories high. 那座主楼将有十层楼高。

He is to leave at eight o’clock this evening. 他要在今晚八点钟离开。

We met for the last time in 1977. We were not to meet again forthree years. 我们最后一次见面是在1977年,以后三年没再见面。(句中 be 用过去时表示时,则表示过去将来时含义。)

注1:有时 "is (或 are) to be + 过去分词" 这种结构含有 can be, must be 的意思。

1) This compound is rarely to be found in nature. (= This compound can rarely be found in nature.) 这种化合物在自然界很少能被发现。

2) These rules of the roads are to be strictly observed. (= These rules of the roads must be strictly observed.) 这些交通规则必须严格遵守。

注2:"is (或 are) not to be + 过去分词" 含有禁止、不许可之意。例如:

1) The magazines are not to be taken out of the reading-room. 杂志不准携出阅览室外。

2) This chemical is not be exposed to air. 这种化学制品不可暴露于空气之外。

注3:注意用逻辑判别方法把上述用法和 be 后的不定式作表语区分开。

1) To live is to struggle. 生活就是斗争。

2) The main aim is to get good results. 主要目的在于取得良好结果。

由于上述两句中的主语都不能产生 be 后面的不定式所表示的动作,故后面的不定式只能作表语。

Ⅵ. “be + going + 动词不定式”

A. 表示在最近期内“打算、准备做……”之意:

We are going to repair the beeper this afternoon. 我们打算今天下午修理那个寻呼机。

There is going to be a video conference tomorrow. 明天准备召开一次电视会议。

B. 表示“即将或马上就要进行某种动作”之意:

The train is going to stop now. 火车马上就要停下来。

It is going to rain. 天就要下雨。

注:如果要表示即将进行某个动作,还可用 "is about to + 原形动词"(就要或即将…)或 "is on the point of"(马上就…)。例如:

They are about to repair that camcorder. 他们马上就修理那台摄像放像机。

They are on the point of repairing the mobile phone. 他们马上就修理那个移动电话。

Ⅶ. “be + certain (或 likely, unlikely 等) + 不定式”:

In the end he is certain to succeed. 最后他必定成功。

She is likely to start Shanghai. 她似乎要动身去上海。

This reaction is unlikely to take place. 这个反应未必发生。

The temperature in either case is sure to rise by 20℃. 这两种情况下温度无疑都会上升20℃。

Ⅶ. be 作 "exist"(存在)讲:

Such things are. 这些情况是存在的。

Ⅸ. be(动词原形)用于让步状语从句:

Be it late, I must finish this work. 尽管晚了,但我仍须结束这项工作。

All magnets behave the same,be they (或 whether they may be) large or small. 所有磁体,不论大小,其性质都相同。

If there were no friction, then nothing - be it a huge slab of stone or a tiny grain of sand - would have its stable position. 要是没有摩擦力,那末就没有一样东西——不管它是一块大石板还是一粒细砂子——会具有稳定的位置。

二、be 用法的判别

be 的用法很多,要判断它在句中的作用,首先要注意一下后面跟着的是什么词,其次套用上述九种基本句型,然后再用“是否合乎逻辑“来最后确定它的语法功用和含义(见本节一、Ⅴ和Ⅵ中注的例子)。

Because, Because of, Due to, Owing to, Thanks to 和 For 表示原因用法比较

一、连词 because 作“因为”、“由于”讲,一般连接原因状语从句,偶尔引出表语从句

He didn't go to school, because he was ill. 他因为有病没去上学。(原因状语从句,从句前可不打逗号)

a. This is because she studies hard. 这是由于她学习努力。(表语从句)

b. The reason why we were late was that the school bus broke down. 我们迟到的原因是校车抛锚了。(that 不能用 because 代替,否则 reason 和 because 在含义上有点重复。)

有时主句为否定句,却否定原因状语从句。注意上下文和读时有无停顿。例如:

A mountain is not valuable because it is high, but because it has trees. 山并不因为高而有价值,而是因为它有树林才有价值。

有时上述句型有两种解释,要靠上下文和中间有无停顿来决定. 例如:

He did not go because he was afraid.

(a) 他因为害怕才没有去。(读时 because 前稍有停顿。)

(b) 他并不因为害怕才去的。(读时中间无停顿。)

It is because computer science is very useful that we study it hard. 正因为计算机科学很有用,我们才努力学习。(强调原因从句。)

二、because of 作“由于”讲,但后面只能接宾语

The traffic was held up because of the accident. 由于出事故交通受到阻塞。

I went back to the factory not because of the rain, but because I had a lot of work to do. 我不是由于下雨才回到工厂去,而是因为我有许多工作要做。

注:because of… 一般不能作表语用,应改用 due to… 或 owing to…(注意后者有时作“(这钱)是欠…的”讲)。due to… 或 owing to… 均可作原因状语,而原因状语 thanks to… 作“多亏…”讲,通常用于好的方面。

三、用 because 和 for 连接句子时的句义差别

The ground is wet because it rained last night. 因为昨天下了雨,所以地很湿。(原因状语从句)

Surely it rained last night, for the ground is wet. 准是昨天下了雨,因为现在地很湿。(这里连词 for 并不引出原因从句,因为地湿不是下雨的真正原因。because 连接原因从句,原因意味强,而 for 连接一个并列分句,只是对前面分句说明而已。)

四、介词 for 表示原因常取决于搭配的动词、形容词等的要求,为此必须注意上下文

thank sb. for his help 感谢某人帮助;

praise sb. for sth. 由于某事表扬某人;

feel great regret for sth. 由于某事深感遗憾;

punish sb. for sth. 由于某事惩罚某人;

be famous (或 well-known 等) for …以…著称(或出名);

a ticket for speeding 一张超速罚款单等

Before 用法和几个在意义上不要混淆的问题

一、before 的基本用法

I. before 作介词用,表示时间、位置“在……前”之意

We plan to finish the adjustment of the equipment before Sunday. 我们计划在星期日以前完成设备的调试工作。

The workers were discussing the problems before the fire.(当时)工人们正在炉前讨论问题。

The problem came before the Committee. 该问题提到委员会上来了。(原文直译是:该问题摆在委员会面前了。)

II. 连接词 before 引出一时间从句,表示时间“在……以前”

They will look into the matter before they arrive at the conclusion. 他们在作出结论之前将对这件事进行调查研究。

注:由 before 引导的时间从句不用将来时态。上句谓语真实时间取决于主句的谓语时间,即“作出结论”显然是在“调查研究”之后,故是将来时间。

I had read the warning before I took the medicine. 我在服药前就已经看了这个注意事项。

注:上句中主句用过去完成时是因为它的谓语动作是在时间状语从句内过去时谓语 began 所表示的动作之前发生的,构成了“过去的过去”,故用过去完成时。但考虑到 before 本身词义已把主句和从句的谓语动作先后分清了,有时可以用过去时代替过去完成时。例如:I started off for work before she came. 她来以前我已上班去了。

III. 由 before 引出一种特殊的“定语从句”

It happened in the year before the city was liberated. 这是在这一城市解放前一年发生的。

They did not reach Tianjin until May 2, the day before the meeting was to be held. 他们到 5 月 2 日,也即会议召开前一天才到达天津。

Ⅳ. before 的转译用法:在本情况下主句、从句各有情态动词 must, can 等。翻译时将原文主句译成条件从句,前加“只有”,而从句译成主句。例如:

We must study hard before we can effectively serve the people. 只有(我们)努力学习,我们才能有效地为人民服务。

A great effort must still be made before the ideals can be turned into reality. 只有经过巨大努力,理想才能变为现实。

Ⅴ. before 作副词用,表示时间上的“以前”、“从前”之意,与其搭配的动词或动词的相应形式(见例句 3)多半用完成式

He has never seen such network newspapers before. 他从前没见过这样一些网络报。

He forgot telling (或 having told) me about it before. 他忘记他以前告诉过我这件事。

In ever mentioned his past before. 当时我从未提起他的过去。

二、注意几个在意义上不要混淆的问題

I. before 和 ago 含义不同。

We took the exam two days ago. 两天以前我们参加了考试。(以现在时为基准的“两天以前”)。

Last week he said (that) they took an exam in Chemistry two days before. 上周他说他们在两天前参加了化学考试。(以上周他说话时间为基准的“两天以前”。)

II. before long(不久以后)和 long before(很久以前)含义不同。

I hope to buy a palm computer before long. 我希望不久(以后)购买一个掌上电脑。

Before long, our plan succeeded. 不久我们的计划成功了。

注:注意其中 long before 还可连接一个从句。例如:

1) We see a plane flying over long before we hear its sound. 在听到飞机声以前,我们早就看见飞机飞过来。 2) It will not be long before we visit Shanghai High-Tech Park. 我们不久将访问上海高科技园区。(before 连接的时间从句仍保留不用将来时态。)

III. before, by, until (或 till) 表示时间各异(见第 37 节、三)。

Behind 的用法及其常用短语

一、介词 behind 具有“在…后面”、“在…背后”之意,常用其引申的译法

The sun is now behind the clouds. 现在太阳正躲在云层后面。

We have strong support behind us. 我们有强大的后盾。(引申译法)

There is something behind his idea. 他的想法言外有意。(引申译法)

A cat came out from behind the door. 有一只猫从门背后出来。(注意 behind 短语作 from 的介词宾语。)

What is behind rising joblessness? 日益增长的失业原因是什么?(由“……失业的背后是什么”引申过来。)

二、介词 behind… 作“误点、过时、成为过去、落后于某人、比…差”等讲

The train is five minutes behind time (或 schedule ). 火车误点五分钟。

These ideas are behind the times. 这些想法过时了。(由“落在时代后面”引申过来。)

Her poor life lies behind her. 她的贫困生活已经过去。

His acting best days are behind him. 他的演艺盛期已经过去。

I put his past behind me. 我把他的过去忘掉了。

She is behind the others in math. 她的数学比别人差。

They fell behind you in computer science. 他们在计算机科学领域中落在你们后面。

三、副词 behind 有“在后”、“较迟”、“落后”含义

He was a long way behind. 他拉下一长段路了。(表语)

The clock runs behind. 钟走慢了。(状语)

She fell (或 dropped) behind. 她落在后面了。(也可说:She fell [或 dropped ] back.)

He came five minutes behind. 他迟来五分钟。(状语,还可用 late 代替句中 behind。)

Take care not to leave anything behind. 注意别留下东西。(固定短语)

四、behind 作介词或副词时的其它常用短语

sit (或 stand ) behind 坐(或站)在后面;say sth. behind sb. ’s (或 sb.’ s back ) 在某人背后说些什么;beheld behind the scenes(会议)是秘密(或幕后)举行的;operate (或 sit) behind the scenes 在幕后操纵;be behind sb.(我)比某人落后[静态];lag (或 trail) behind sb. 落在某人后面[动态];get behind… 落在(某人)后面,支持(某决议等)[系由“转到某决议的后面”引申过来],洞察(该事故即 the accident)的内情;go behind… 探讨(某人演讲、计划等)含义(由“走到…后面琢磨其意”引申过来);hang behind 落后,别人离开后仍留在后面(由原意“挂在后面”引申过来);be kept behind(这小孩)放学后被留下[后加 after school];be behind in sth.(我)在某方面落后;remain behind 或 stay behind 在别人走后仍留下来;stop behind to do sth.(在会后或讲座后)留下来做某事(如提问等);wait behind to do sth. 等别人走后留下来做某事:run behind(狗)跟在后面奔跑,(这块表)走慢等

Being 的用法和注意点

一、现在分词 being 的用法

I. “be 的现在时或过去时形式 + being + 过去分词”用于现在进行时被动态或过去进行时被动态中。注意英语不用将来进行时被动态,也不用各种完成进行时的被动态。

Inside the sun, matter is being changed to energy. 物质在太阳中不断地变为能量。

When we came into the factory,that multi media computer was being repaired by an engineer. 当我们进入工厂时,那台多媒体计算机正由一位工程师在修理。

II. being… 用于作定语,一般和过去分词连用,放在被说明名词后,表示进行时被动意义。

The instrument being repaired is a new type of measuring instrument. 正在被修理的这台仪器是一台新型的测量仪。

The house being built will be our new laboratory. 正在盖的那所房子将是我们的新实验室。

注意:上述两句中作后置定语的“being + 过去分词”结构有时还可相应地用 under repair 和 under construction 代替。又如 the problems being studied (或 investigated, discussed, considered 等) 就可改用 the problems under study (或 investigation, discussion, consideration 等) 来代替,并可分别译为“所研究的(或被调查的,所讨论的,被考虑的)这些问题等”。

III. being 用于状语,一般有逗号,翻译时常加表示状语的词汇,如 “由于…”、“…时”、“作为…”等。

Being very small, atoms cannot be seen by ordinary methods. 由于原子太小,用普通方法就不能见到原子。

(Being) Cooled in the air, this kind of steel becomes harder and harder. 这种钢在空气中冷却时,就变得越来越硬。

Being students of engineering, we need to know how to use modern computers. 我们作为工科学生,就需要懂得如何使用现代化的计算机。(句中 Being 还可用 As 代替。)

Scientists working with the ocean are now wondering whether the ocean can go on being the wastebasket for these unsafe remains. 从事海洋研究的科学家现在都想知道海洋是否还能继续成为容纳这些危险的残余物质的废纸篓。(本句中 being 则是 go on 后面要求使用 -ing 的固定用法。)

Ⅳ. being 用于独立分词结构,具有含蓄地表示各种状语的意味。(联系第 54 节有关广义的带有 -ing 的独立分词结构。)

The temperature being below 0℃, water turns into ice. 当温度低于 0℃ 时水就变为冰。(时间状语)

That being the case, we will have to make some alternations in the plan. 情况既然这样,我们就得把计划作一些更改。(原因状语)

Washing machines are built in various types, their functions being the same. 洗衣机可制成各种型式,虽然其功能相同。(让步状语)

The resistance being very high, the current in the circuit is low. 如果电阻很大,则电路内电流就小。(条件状语)

There are a large number of different shapes of machine tools, each being made for some particular kind of work. 各种机床的形状大不相同,每一种都是为特殊的一类加工而制作的。(伴随情况)

Ⅴ. being 用于介词后的复合宾语结构即“介词 + 名词或代词 + being +… ”中。这里 being 为现在分词。 (联系第 54 节、四、ⅩⅣ-B。)

The pressure of a gas varies inversely as its volume, with the temperature being constant. 在温度不变条件下,气体压强和体积成反比。

They insisted upon (或 on) their device being tested under the operating conditions. 他们坚持他们的装置要在运转条件下进行试验。

We are pleased at them being successful. 我们为他们成功而感到高兴。(若用 their 代替 them,则后面 being 为动名词。)

a. The current produced is the result of chemical energy being changed to electric energy. 所产生的电流是化学能变为电能的结果。

b. Coal, petroleum, and electricity are all the sources of heat now being used. 煤、石油和电都是当前使用的热源。(与 a 句中相应结构相似,但本句中 being 短语为后置定语,而 a 句中 being 和前面名词 chemical energy 却构成复合结构。必须根据上下文进行逻辑判断。)

二、动名词 being 短语在句中顶一个名词用,可作介词宾语、动词宾语或主语用

Water has the property of dissolving sugar, sugar (has) the property of being dissolved by water. 水具有溶解糖的特性,糖则具有被水溶解的特性。(介词宾语)

The race result is far from being satisfactory. 赛跑结果远非令人满意。(介词宾语)

She does not like being treated unequally. 她不愿受到不平等的待遇。(动词宾语)

Not being able to speak English made her feel strange. 当时不会讲英语使她感到很不自在。(主语)

The basement smelled damp after being closed for such along time. 地下室关闭这么长时间,闻起来有潮湿气味。(介词宾语)

三、“be + being + 表语”用于表示一时的表现

He is not being modest today. 他今天表现不太谦虚。

They are being friendly. 他们这样做是为了表示友好。(意译)

He is being a good boy today. 他今天可是个好孩子。

四、“there being… ”结构的用法。参阅第105节三、四

Below 的用法

一、介词 below 表示方位、数值等“在……下面”、“低于……”之意

The sun sinks (或 disappears, goes) below the horizon. 太阳沉落(或消失)在地平线下。

Once the yield was below the average. 产量一度低于平均值。

It is four degrees below zero now. 现在零下四度。

The pressure causes the ice to melt at a temperature slightly below 0℃. 加压能使冰在微低于 0℃ 的温度下融化。

This is below consideration. 这是不值得考虑的。

Most of the energy we use come from below the ground in the form of coal, oil and gas. 我们使用的大部分能量系以煤、石油和煤气形式出现,都来自地下。(介词短语 below the ground 作介词 from 的宾语。)

a. Sign your name below the line. 请在横线下方签名。

b. The temperature fell (或 dropped) below zero. 温度降到零度以下。

You are below her in computer programming. 你的计算机程序设计不如她。

A major is below a general. 少校低于将军。

There is water about two meters below the surface. 地面下约两米有水。

She lives in the flat below ours. 她住在我们下面的那套单元房子里。(并不是指她住在我们住的单元房子的垂直下方。)

注:注意 below 在方位上仅表示位置低于所提及的事物,而 under 则表示处于垂直线的下面。例如:

1) The river below the bridge is ten meters deep. 桥下这条河有 10 米深。

2) The river under the bridge is ten meters deep. 桥下的河(指桥身正下方的河水)有 10 米深。

二、副词 below 作“在下”讲,注意可做状语、后置定语和宾语用

The working conditions of this device are given below. 这种装置的操作条件如下所述。(副词作状语。)

Most uses of multimedia computers will be dealt with below. 多媒体计算机的大多数用途将在下面予以讨论。(副词作状语。)

When a beaker of water is heated from below the water at the bottom becomes less dense (assuming it is above 4℃) and rises. 当从下面对一烧杯的水加热时,烧杯底部的水,其密度较小(假定在 4℃ 以上),就往上升。(below 副词作介词 from 的宾语。)

See the notes below. 参阅下面注释。(副词作定语。)

See below. 见下文。

三、below 和 beneath, under 用法比较(见下一个专题)

Beneath 和 Under, Below 用法比较

在日常用语中 under 比 beneath 用得广泛。beneath 只是在文学作品中使用比喻时出现较多。

一、介词 beneath 表示“在…之下(或下方)、在紧靠…底下或在…脚边”

live (或 work) beneath (或 under) the same roof 在同一屋顶下居住(或工作);

we are shin beneath the coat 将衬衣穿在外衣里面;

be beneath…(学校)在山脚下(后接 the hill),(地窖即 the cellar)在(厨房)下方;

put some straw beneath (或 under) the mat. 将一些稻草铺在席子下面等。

二、介词 beneath 在一定上下文中用于表示“在…掩盖、压力或影响下”的含义

Beneath this surface calm are unresolved conflicts. 这种表面平静背后隐藏着悬而未决的冲突。

My flowers wilted beneath the dry spell. 我的花在干旱影响下凋谢了。

The tall tree was beginning to sag beneath the weight of its heavy branches. 这棵高大的树在树枝重压下开始下弯了。

The girl found her stolen watch beneath (或 underneath) the mat. 这女孩在草席底下发现了她被偷的手表。(注意用 under neath 时突出“掩盖、遮盖、暗藏”的意思。这里手表和草席接触。)

Those insects hid beneath (或 underneath) the leaves。那些虫子躲在树叶底下。(同上)

注 1:如果将上述第 4、5 句分别改为 "under the bed" 和 "under the leaves",则“表”和“虫子”各自跟“床”或“树叶”不接触。但 under 却可表示穿在同一人身上的几件衣服的里外层次。例如:He is wearing a shirt under his jacket. 他在夹克衫里面穿着一件衬衫。

注 2:under 和 below 用法比较可参阅 Below 的用法、一 的注。

三、介词 beneath 表示某人地位、级别、学识等低于…时用法举例(常可用 below 代替,还显得通俗些)

I am beneath Jenny and Linda in every way. 我各方面都比詹妮和琳达低。(可用 below 代替)。

Before 1960 he was beneath an American citizen socially. 1960 年以前他的社会地位低于美国公民。(同上)

She would like to make friends with anyone beneath her. 她愿意跟地位比她低的人交朋友。(同上)

Beside 和 Besides的用法及注意事项

一、介词 beside 作“在…旁边”讲;可引申为“比起来”、“和…无关”等。

Many automobiles are running on the road beside the river. 许多汽车在河旁的路上奔驰。

We stand (或 sit, lie) beside. 我们站(或坐、躺)在某人身旁。

Beside this beeper that one is seen to be much better. 和这个传呼机相比,就可看出那个寻呼机好得多。

She is beside herself with excitement (或 joy, grief, anger). 她极度激动(或高兴、痛苦、生气)。[由“她由于激动…等身不由己(因身旁已是身外→她失去对自己感情的控制)”引申过来。]

Their discussion is beside the question. 他们的讨论离题了。(直译是“…与该问题无关”。)

二、介词 besides 作“除…以外,还”讲(同时参阅第 42 节)

Besides the electrons, an atom also contains positive electrical particles. 除了电子以外,原子还含有带正电的粒子。

This morning he had nothing to do besides answering letters. 今天上午他除了写信外,没事可做。(answering letters 为动名词短语,作介词宾语。)

Besides knowing much about music, she sings very well. 除了懂音乐以外,她还唱得很好。

Besides that he drove the car, he repaired it on the way to Beijing. 他不仅驾驶了这辆车,而且在赴京途中还对它进行了修理。(介词 besides 后由连词 that 引出介词宾语从句。)

三、副词 besides 作“此外”、“加之”、“况且”等讲

The second-hand car he bought was almost new; besides, it was in excellent condition. 他买的那辆二手车几乎是新的,而且运行状况极佳。

Besides, the diseases brought by those people had reached epidemic proportions. 此外,当时那些人带来的疾病已达到流行病程度。

四、几个注意点

I. beside 一般只作介词用,而 besides 可作介词或副词用。两词虽相差一个 s,但须注意词义差别大。详见上述第一~三项。

II. 介词 besides 和 except 在汉语里都译为“除……以外”,但含义有差别。

All went to Beijing last year except Joe. 除了乔以外,去年谁都去过北京了。(意指“乔没去北京”。)

All of them went to Beijing last year besides Joe. 除了乔以外,去年他们也都去过北京了。(意指“乔去了北京”。)

本专题第二项中的四个例句中的 besides 用法也与上相同,没有把 besides 后面的人或物作为“除外”来看待,而是“也包括了进去”。主句没有 also 等词出现,在译文中加译“也”、“还”为妥,以免误解。

若 besides… 与否定句连用,则表示“除…外不再有…”之意,可与 except 互换:There is nothing on the table besides (或 except ) a floppy disk. 桌上只有一个软盘。

Between 和 Among 的用法辨异

一、between 和 among 都是介词,都作“之间”、“中间”讲,但前者用于“两者之间”,而后者用于“三者以上中间”

What is the difference between a pager and a mobile phone? 寻呼机和移动电话之间的差别是什么?(后置定语)

He will come back between one and two o’clock. 他将于 1 点到 2 点之间回来。(状语)

It is due to the free motion among the molecules. 这是由于分子中间的自由运动的缘故。(后置定语)

Among all the machines computers are used most widely. 在所有机器中,计算机使用最广泛。(状语)

二、注意 between 和 among 介词短语作另一介词的宾语

The air has been removed from between the two pipes. 已从两管之间抽走了空气。(作介词 from 的宾语)

We must select the best notebook computer from among those ones. 我们必须从那些笔记本电脑中间挑出最好的一台。(作介词 from 的宾语)

三、between 用于“三者以上”,则表示其中每两个之间的相互关系

We put emphasis on the friendly relation between the people of all countries. 我们强调各国人民之间的友好关系。

Early man did not know how to explain the difference between gases, solids and liquids. 早期人们不懂如何解释气体、固体和液体之间的差别。

The ester must be separated between each washing. 各次洗涤之间必须将这种酯分离出来。

Compare the difference between doing business in the Arab world and in your country or the US. 请比较一下在阿拉伯世界和你们国家或在美国做生意之间的差别。

四、between 作副词用法举例

In gases, the particles are far apart with empty space between. 在气体中各粒子空隙间距大。

We would like two rooms with a bath between. 我们愿要两个房间,中间有一个浴室。

Beyond 的搭配用法及理解

一、介词 beyond 在位置上表示“在…以外”、“在(或到)…的那一边”之意

Our special economic zone is beyond the hill. 我们的经济特区在这小山那边。(或意译:过了小山便是我们的经济特区。)

The steel works is 40 kilo meters beyond the town. 钢厂离城镇 40 公里。(由“钢厂在城镇外 40 公里”引申过来。)

He will look beyond the grave. 他将考虑身后(或死后)事。(意译)

He has come from beyond the sea. 他从海外(或大洋彼岸)回来。(beyond 短语作介词 from 的宾语。)

She can see beyond the end of his nose. 她能看得远(或看得透)。(由“能看鼻尖以外的东西“引申过来。)

二、介词 beyond 表示“(时间)超过→晚于…或(数量)超过…”时的用法举例

Now it is beyond six o’clock. 现在过六点了。(意译)

Today he checked the circuit beyond the usual time. 今天他比平时晚些才检查好线路。

In the meeting room there were not beyond ten professors present. 在会议室出席的教授不超过十位。

Only a few restaurants keep open beyond (或 after) midnight. 仅有几家餐馆持续营业到半夜以后。

三、介词 beyond 表示在范围上“超出、超过…”或“出乎…以外”

The book is quite beyond me (或 my comprehension, my understanding.) 这本书非我所能理解。(表语)

We found Beijing changed beyond recognition. 我们发现北京变了,使人认不得了。(状语)

The temperature scales can be extended in either direction beyond 0℃ and 100℃. 温度刻度可以朝着超出 0℃ 或 100℃ 的任一方向扩展。(后置定语)

By radar people can see the things beyond the visibility of them. 利用雷达人们能看见视线以外的东西。(后置定语)

注 1:用介词 beyond 表示在范围上“超出、超过…或出于…以外”的固定短语较多,并且译为汉语时常有丰富多彩的表示方法。又如:beyond all comparison 无可比拟;beyond all hope 没有希望;beyond belief 难以置信;beyond comprehension 不能理解;beyond dispute 无可争论;beyond control 不受约束,不受控制;beyond controversy 无可争论;beyond one’s grasp 非力所及;beyond doubt 无疑;beyond expression 难以比喻;beyond expectation 出乎意料,不料等

注 2:注意本项中有些固定的 beyond 短语还可比较灵活地用于句中作状语、插入语,只要其意思在上下文中贴切就宜。例如:

She is beyond doubt (或 dispute) an outstanding scientist. 她无疑(或无可争辩)是位杰出的科学家。(状语)

Beyond all doubt, Jenny and Linda will both succeed. 毫无疑问,詹妮和琳达都会成功。(插入语)

In her work Jenny demonstrated beyond any question many good qualities. 詹妮在工作中不容置疑地表现出许多优秀品质。(状语)

They convinced me that Ava, beyond the possibility of doubt, was innocent. 他们使我相信埃娃毫无疑问是清白的。(插入语)

You must write a letter to your mother beyond all (或 beyond all things). 你首先必须给你母亲写信。(状语)

四、介词 beyond 作“超出→超脱…”或“超脱→不屑或决不…”讲时的用法举例(常用于表示某人品质、习性等方面)

He is beyond such a thing. 他不屑(或决不)做这样的事。

Don't ask him how they are to pay the bills; he has gone beyond caring. 别问他,他们将如何支付这些账单;他已不再操心(或在乎)了。(由“超脱或不屑于关心这件事”引申过来。)

He has only a short sighted plan, and so he is beyond thinking of the future. 他只有一个眼光短浅的计划,因而不屑考虑将来。

五、介词 beyond 作“除了…外”讲用法举例(常用于否定句、疑问句)

I had no money beyond my pension. 那时我除了养老金以外毫无积蓄。

What else do you know about the stranger beyond what they have said about him? 除了他们说的有关这位陌生人的情况以外,你还知道他其它什么情况吗?

Beyond inviting me to Shanghai, he also sent me a railroad ticket. 除了邀请我去上海以外,他还给我寄来了一张火车票。(只是偶尔用于肯定句。)

六、副词 beyond 作“再过去”、“再往前”、“远处或往远处”或“以后时期”等讲,常可根据上下文理解为 beyond 后省略了有关词语

The building is very high. I don't know whether there is any house beyond. 这楼很高。我不知道再前面是否有什么房子。(可以理解为 beyond 后省略 it。)

She studies in the left school, but I work beyond. 她在左边的学校学习,而再往前是我的工作的单位。(同上。)

These passengers are going to Beijing and all stations beyond. 这些旅客准备去北京以及北京以远的各站。(同上)

They investigated the important events of 1996 and beyond. 他们调查了 1996 年以及(1996 年)以后的重要事件。(同上)

Both 的用法及注意点

一、形容词 both 作“两个…都”讲

Both (the) students have read a good few books. 这两个学生都读了不少书。(定语)

Both cancer research and cloning technology are important to us。癌症研究和克隆技术对我们都很重要。(同上)

There are trees on both sides of the street. 街道两旁都有树。(定语)

从上述前两句中可看出作定语用的 both 含有“两个……都”之意。第3句中的 both 用法还表明:街道只有两旁,没有三旁、四旁。

二、代词 both 作“两人”、“两者”讲,作同位语用,仍含有“两者都”之意

Science and education both play an important part in the national economy. 科学和教育在国民经济中都起着重要的作用。

They have both been to Beijing Computing Center. 他们俩都去过北京计算中心。(若改用 Both of them,则代词 Both 作主语。)

She and I are both computer programmers. 她和我都是计算机程序员。

三、"both… and…" 起连接词作用,作“…和…两者都”、“又…又”、“不但…而且”讲

注意 "both… and…" 能连接各种并列成分,甚至两个句子。

Both you and your son have given both your mother and myself a lot of trouble. 你和你的儿子两人都已给你的母亲和我两人带来了不少麻烦。("both… and…" 分别连接两个主语和两个间接宾语。)

What he saw at that time both surprised and frightened him. 那时他所看到的情况使他感到既吃惊又害怕。(连接两个谓语动词)

These materials are both useful and important. 这些材料既有用又重要。(连接两个表语)

The word "sound" may be used both as a noun and as a verb. "sound" 这个词既可作名词用,又可作动词用。(连接两个主语补语)

Copper is an important conductor,both because of its high conductivity and because of its abundance and low cost. 铜是一种重要的导体,因为它的导电率高,而且资源丰富,价格又低。(连接两个状语)

It is necessary to build a lot of petrochemical works both because China is rich in petroleum and because there is a great demand for petrochemicals. 由于中国石油丰富,而且对石油化学产品需要量又大,所以有必要建立许多石油化工厂。(连接两个状语从句)

四、注意“both + 否定式谓语 + …”构成部分否定

Both (the) instruments are not precision ones. 并非这两个仪器都是精密仪器。(=Not both instruments are precision ones.)

Both of the films are not wonderful. 这两部电影并非都是精彩的。

注:若要把上句改为全部否定,就要用“neither… + 肯定式谓语”或“either… + 否定式谓语”。详见第 72,38 节。

But 及其搭配关系的用法和判别

一、but 作“但是”讲,连接两个并列成分或两个并列句子

Steel is not brittle, but strong. 钢不脆,但坚固。(连接两个表语)

The atomic numbers are nearly, but not quite, the same as the order of the atomic weights. 原子序几乎是(但不完全是)和原子量的顺序相同。(连接两个状语)

Theory is something but practice is everything. 理论固然重要,但实践尤其重要。(连接两个句子)

Mercury is in the liquid state, but it is a metal. 汞处于液态,但汞是金属。(连接两个句子)

Using this simple but scientific method would enable Archimedes to solve such problems. 当时使用这种简单却又是科学的方法常使阿基米德解出了这样一些题。(连接两个定语)

二、but(介词)作“除了……以外”讲(参阅第 42 节)

I have told everybody but you. 除了你,我谁都告诉了。

You can't get the book anywhere but here (或 in this bookshop). 除非在这里(或在这家书店),你在任何地方也得不到这本书。

while carrying the instrument, do not touch any parts but the carrier bars and the bed. 当搬运这台仪器时,除了搬运杆和床座外,其它任何零件都不要碰。

She was the last but one to arrive. 她是倒数第二个到达的。(句中 but 仍为介词。“除了一个以外的最后一个”正好就是“倒数第二个”。不定式 to arrive 作后置定语。)

She did nothing but smile at us from beginning to end. 她从头到尾只是对我们微笑。(介词 but 后接动词不定式。当前面动词出现 do 时,不定式前的 to 在 but 后就不用了。)

If the bird did not find land, it would have no choice but to return to the ship. 如果鸟没有发现陆地,它就别无选择,只有飞回船上。(本句 but 后必须用带 to 的不定式,因为前面没有出现实意动词 do。)

三、nothing but… 和 nothing else but… 的用法(不限于上面第 5、6 例)

It is nothing but a home computer. 这只不过是一台家用计算机。

Then I could hear nothing but the roar of aircraft engines. 那时我只能听见飞机引擎呼啸声。

Lightning is nothing else but an electric spark. 闪电不外乎是电火花而已。

He is nothing but a college student. 他只是一个大学生。

四、“anything but + …”作“决非…”讲,系由“除了…以外,任何什么都行”,引申过来

It is anything but a multimedia computer. 这决不是一台多媒体计算机。

Her French was anything but correct before 1997. 1997 年以前她的法语错误百出。(原义是“…决非正确”。)

Isn't there anything in your hometown but mountains? 难道你的故乡只有山吗?(意译)

五、“what (who, whose 等疑问词) + but…”表示的意思与“nothing but”,“no one (或 none) but”同义(参阅本节三和六)

What is coal but a kind of stone? = Coal is nothing but a kind of stone. 煤只是一种石头。(由“煤除了一种石头以外又是什么呢?”引申过来。)

Who but the workers, student sand teachers of our university can enter the reading-room? = No one (或 None) but the workers… can enter the reading room. 只有我校工人、学生和教师才能进入阅览室。

Whose fault is it but your own? = It is no one’s fault but your own. 这只是你的过错。

六、“nobody (或 no… 或 none) but + …”作“除了…以外无人(或没有…)…,”讲,如果 but 后接一个从句,这时 but 顶替“关系代词 that + not”

No one but a naughty boy would have such an idea. 只有淘气的男孩才会有这样一种想法。(原义为“除了淘气的男孩以外,无人会有…”。)

None but the net friends can enter the club. 只有网友才能进入这个俱乐部。

I’ll take nobody but Joe to Macao. 我将只带乔去澳门。

There is scarcely a man but knows of American Inventor Edison. 几乎没有人是不知道美国发明家爱迪生的。(句中 but 等于关系代词 that + not。)

No college student was there but respected the teachers.(当时)那儿没有一个大学生是不尊敬老师的。

七、“no one (或 none, nothing 等)…so…but…”表示“没有人(或物等)……如此……以致……不……”之意。注意这里 but 虽也相当于 that not,但 that 已不是关系代词,而是连词

No one (或 Nobody) is so old but he may learn. 一个人无论多老,总是可以学习的。(原义为:没有一个人老到以致不能学习的。)

There is nothing so difficult but it becomes easy by practice. 无论多么困难的事,通过实践后总可以变为容易的。(原义为:没有如此困难的事,以致通过实践它不能变为容易的。)

No man is so foolish but he may give another good counsel sometimes. 无论怎样愚笨的人,有时仍能给别人提出忠告。

有时用谓语否定式来代替 no 否定后面的名词,but 仍作 that(连词)not 讲。例如:

He is not so sick but he can go to school. 他还没有病到不能上学。

本句型结构中 so 修饰后面副词或形容词;若修饰名词,则要用 such 代之。例如下面句 5:

It was not such a cold night but we could go out. 那天夜里还没有冷到不能外出。

八、“not that… but that…”作“不是……而是(倒是)……”讲。本句型可理解为句首省略了It is。于是,它就变成了另一种强调句型,只是增加了正反对比而已

(It is) Not that the palmtop is out of order, but that I have not learned to operate it. 不是掌上型电脑出了故障,而是我还没有学会操作。(联系本节第十二条,并注意它们用法上的差别。)

(It is) Not that I dislike the work, but that I have no time to do it. 不是我不喜欢这项工作,而是我没有时间做这项工作。

注:下句的 but that 和本条及本节第十二条中 but that 用法又不同。例如:But that is quite different. 但那是不相同的。

九、"not only… but (also)…" 作“不仅……而且……”讲

Mr.Wang is not only a worker but (also) a student. 王先生不仅是个工人,而且是个学生。(若不用 also,也可在句末加 as well。)

The students can not only operate the video cameras with safety but also repair them. 学生们不仅能安全地操作这些摄象机,而且还能修理。

Not only China, but all the world feels this loss. 不仅中国,而且全世界都感到这种损失。(not only 和 but 连接两个并列的主语。虽然 not only 位于句首,后面主、谓语不必颠倒。)

Not only is this problem very important, but it is a difficult problem to be solved at once. 这个问题不仅十分重要,而且还是一个难以马上解决的问题。(见下面注释。)

注:注意 not only 和 but 后连接的成分必须是并列的同等成分。当 not only 位于句首并不直接说明主语时,句中主、谓语要采用疑问句格式的颠倒(见上面第 3 句。)

十、but (副词) 作“不过”、“仅”、“只”讲,但较为文气

It is but a plan. 这仅是一个计划。

He left but an hour ago. 一小时前他才离开的。

There is but one web phone in the room. 房间里只有一架网络电话。

十一、“but for + 名词”表示“要不是”、“若没有”之意,一般用于虚构的假设句中

But for the teacher’s help, we would not have succeeded. 要不是老师的帮助,我们是不会成功的。

But for air and water, nothing could live. 没有空气和水,什么也活不了。

注:but for… 一般用于虚构的假设,句中要用虚拟语气。注意下列句中 but for 不作“要不是”解,而作“但是对于……”讲。例如:Size and fashion are easily specified for shirts, but for a tea set the terms "size" and "fashion" are not so clear. 对于衬衫来说,尺寸和款式易于规定,但是对于一套茶具来说,“尺寸”和“款式”这两个术语就不明确了。

十二、“but that + 从句” 的用法:一般作“假使……不”解;和疑问词或否定词连用,则本身起否定作用

But that you helped us, we should have failed. 假使你们不帮助我们,那么我们早就失败了。

But that he saw it, he could not have believed it. 要不是他亲眼看见,他早就不相信了。

Who knows but that he will come by and by? 谁知道他不会马上来?

I do not say but that A will vary with B in a large degree. 我没说 A 不会在很大程度上随 B 而变。

I can't come, not but that I should like to come. 我不能来,并非不肯来。

It cannot be but that something will happen. 一定有事情要发生。

十三、but what 表示后面句子是否定意思

Not a man but what likes to see the film "Titanic". 没有一个人是不喜欢看“泰坦尼克号”影片的。

Not a day but what it rains. 没有一天不下雨。

Who knows but (what) it may be so? 或许如此,也未可知。(原义为:“谁知道这也许不是如此呢?“或“谁能说这也许不是如此?”)

I can't do it; not but what a younger man might be able to do it. 我不能做,但是比我年轻的人也许能做。

十四、but yet 作连词用,当“可是”、“然而”讲

I agree with you, but yet I cannot leave for Beijing at once. 我同意你,可是我不能马上去北京。

十五、all but 作“差不多”、“几乎”讲,在句中作状语

He all but did these experiments. 他几乎做了这些实验。

This gas is all but yellow. 这种气体差不多是黄色的。

十六、“be + but (或 only) + too… + 不定式”中,动词不定式意思没有被否定,but too 作“十分”,“非常”讲

I shall be but (或 only) too pleased to do my best in that line of work. 我将非常高兴地尽力做好那方面的工作。

十七、can but 作“只能”讲

we can but have a try. 我们只能试一试。

I can but buy the only CD player. 我只能买这名唯一的光盘播放机。

十八、can not but 作“不得不”讲

I cannot but take care of the pump. 我不得不看管这台泵。

I cannot but use his telephone directory. 我不得不使用他的电话簿。

十九、But 和 Except, Besides, Apart From 用法比较(参阅前面第 14 节)

By 的搭配用法及其分类理解

一、介词 by 作“在…旁边”、“在(某人)身边”或“从…旁边”讲时的动词短语举例

Have a pager by…(我)身边有一个寻呼机(后加 me)

fly by the town 从城镇旁飞过

get by… (我不能)挤过(如此多的人群即 so many people),(这艘船能够)通过(敌人的炮火即 the enemy guns),(你的建议)通过了(第一关即 the 即 the first stage)[过去一般时]

hurry by…(她)匆匆地从(大楼)旁走过[过去一般时]

go west by north(汽车)朝西偏北驶去

Pass by the computer center 路过计算中心

sit by the fire 坐在火炉旁

stand by…(这座房子)位于(河)边,(他)站在(我)身旁,(我)恪守(原则即 the principles)[由“坚守在…旁”引申过来]

walk by the window (我)从窗前走过去

二、介词 by 作“通过、经由、取道”讲。若后接不带冠词的 air, water, land, plane, ship, train, bus, bike 或地名等,则表示旅行方式

They crossed the river by a long bridge. 他们经由一座长桥过了河。

He went out by another door. 他经由另一道门出去。

I shall return by Tokyo. 我将取道东京回国。

She drove up to the police station by way of the 18th Street. 她驾车取道第十八街开往警察分局了。

She went to Shanghai by air (或 by plane) today. 她今天乘飞机去上海了。

They came by car (或 bus, tube, train, ship 等). 他们坐汽车(或乘公共汽车、地铁、火车、轮船等)来的。

Some of us sent the goods by sea (或 land). 我们中间有些人由海路(或陆路)运送了货物。

注:对于特定时刻的火车或公共汽车,尽管前面出现 the 但仍可用介词 by,但也可用 on。其它交通工具前面出现定冠词和修饰语时,则结合具体情况可使用介词 in 或 on。

三、介词 by 表示时间或某时间下限。by… 表示时间下限时,句中谓语多半要用完成时,但当谓语是系词 be 时,则不必用完成时

They work by day. 他们白天工作。

By the end of next year, we will have been studying English for 3 years. 到明年底为止我们英语已学了三年。

By the time the fire-engine arrived, the fire had been put out by the inhabitants. 当救火车到达时,火已被居民扑灭了。(由 by the time 引出时间状语从句。主句谓语是行为动词的被动态,“灭火”是在救火车到达前完成的,故要用过去完成时。)

We shall have left by the time you return here. 你们回到这里时,我们将早巳走了。(由 by the time 引出时间从句。)

注:注意 by 和 until (或 till) 在表示时限方面的用法各异:

1) You must be back by four o’clock. 你务必不迟于四点回来。

2) I must be here until four o’clock. 我必须在这里呆到四点。

3) She saw you here the year before last. 她前年在这里见到了你。

四、在被动态句或短语中用 by 引出行为主体

These machines are driven by electricity. 这些机器是由电力驱动的。(句中 are driven by electricity 可用 are power-driven 代替。)

The new elevated roads were designed by the senior engineers in 1999. 这些新的高架桥路是由这些高级工程师在 1999 年设计的。

The experiments (done) by Prof • Smith and the book (written) by Prof • Brown were both interesting and instructive. 史密斯教授所做的实验和勃朗教授写的书都是既有趣又有教益的。(句中 done 和 written 还可省略。)

五、by 表示手段或方法,一般含有“通过…的方式”之意

You do not change the Shape of a solid by putting it in a container. 你并不能通过把固体放入容器内改变固体形状。

注:注意上句用“by + -ing 或其短语”表示方式状语。又如:amuse oneself by reading novels. 以看小说来消遣, begin by doing something 通过做某事来开始等。

To weld metals is possible by means of heat produced by a current. 用电流产生的热来焊接金属是可行的。(原义为“通过……手段”。)

The liquid falls from the container drop by drop. 该液体一滴一滴地从容器内掉下来。(由“一滴挨着一滴”引申过来。)

Things go on step by step. 事物一步一步地在发展。(也可用 little by little 代替,表示“一点一点地”。)

They entered the classroom two by two (或 by twos and threes). 他们两个两个地进入教室(或…两个三个地进入教室)。

We know about magnetism by how magnetsact. 通过磁铁如何作用,我们就可知道有关磁性的问题。(by 接一个由疑问词引出的介词宾语从句。)

六、介词 by… 表示“按照(规定、外形、重量、体积、小时、立升、公斤等)”含义

do everything by rule. 按规定办事

tell one state of matter from another by their form. 根据物态形状把这一物态和另一物态区别开

sell flour by weight(或 the kilogram)按重量(或公斤)出售面粉

a. hire a car by the day 租借汽车按天数计(必须用 the)

b. prefer travelling by day. 宁愿白天旅行

Sugar is sold by the kilogram and petroleum by the liter. 白糖按公斤出售,而汽油按公升出售。(与上句同理,必须用 the。)

By my watch it is eight o’clock now. 按我的表,现在是八点钟。

I knew by his appearance that he was not English. 当时我按他外貌便认出他不是英国人。

I’m not an actress by profession. 按职业我不是女演员。

He was a peasant by birth. 按出生他是农民。

七、表示数量的净增减值或乘除数以及尺寸、距离等

A is by 4 feet longer than B. A 比 B 长四英尺。

An increase in the oxygen content of a coal by 1 percent reduces the calorific value by about 1.7 percent. 煤的含氧量增加 1%,其热值就下降约 1.7%。

注 1:注意 by 后接百分数时,用或不用 by,均为净增加的百分数。例如:The quantity of petroleum needed for the process will be increased (by) 5%. 这个过程所需的石油数量将增加 5%。

注2:注意 by 后接“a factor of + 数字”时,倍数减去 1。例如:This flow rate exceeds the mean flow rate by a factor two. 该流速超过平均流速一倍。

A divided by B gives C. A ÷ B = C。

A multiplied by B equals C. A × B = C。

This value is the product of F by S. 这个数值是 F 和 S 的乘积。

The mobile phones produced this week must be checked by 100 percent. 本周生产的移动电话必须百分之百地(或全部地)进行检验。

He has a desk 150 cm by 50 cm. 他有一张长 150 厘米宽 50 厘米的书桌。

The bullet missed his head by a hair's breadth. 子弹在他头上掠过过,只差一丝一毫之距。

八、当和动词 seize, take, hold, catch 等连用时,by… 表明接触身体的那一部分

lead on by the nose 牵着鼻子领着走;

hold the door by the handle 握着门上的手把;

take him by the hand 攥着他的手;

pull the by the sleeve 拉着男孩的袖子;

seize the child by the collar 抓着小孩的领子;

grab him by the arm 急速抓住他的胳膊;

shake somebody by the hand 握某人的手等

九、以介词短语形式构成的其它常用短语

by accident = by chance 偶然地;

by all means 想方设法,一定要,当然可以;

by choice 出于自愿;

by day (或 night) 在白天(或在夜间);

by daylight 在大白天;

by dint of… 通过(努力工作即 hard work 等);

by far + 形容词最高级最 最…的;

by far + 比较级 重得多(后加 heavier);

by hook or (by) crook 以任何手段,想一切办法;

by leaps and bounds 快速地;

by means of …借助于或靠…;

by mistake (或 error) 出于误会,弄错;

by no means 决不;

by oneself 独自地;

by the way 顺便说一件事;

by turns 轮流地;

go hot and cold by turns(她)一阵发热一阵发冷[表示发烧、害臊或丢脸];

by (或 in) virtue of his position 由于他的职位(较为文气的说法)等

十、“动词 + 介词 + …”的固定短语含义有时也不是一成不变的。这不仅取决于上下文,而且还得靠对 by 的基本含义的理解

例如:go by + … 可以理解为“从…旁边通过”,但当见到 go by the doctor’s advice 时,就应把这个 by 作“按照”去理解,译为“按照医生建议进行”。同理,abide by sb. 就应从原文本意“坚守在某人身旁”去理解为“支援或帮助某人”。又如 stick by … 作“忠于(某人)”、“坚持(意见等)”讲,就应从动词 stick(粘贴、不离开)和介词 by(“在旁边紧挨着”)去理解。其效果比死记硬背要好得多。

十一、副词 by 作“在近旁”、“从近旁”、“经过或过去”乃由介词短语 by… 发展过来,有时结合上下文还有引申的用法

Walk by the window(从窗户旁走过去)→ walk by(从旁边走过去)

stand by me(站在我旁边或支持我)→ stand by(站在一旁或袖手旁观)

get by many people(从许多人近旁通过)→ get by(挤着通过)→(他的工作)还过得去→(她)勉强过活

A lot of time has gone(或 passed)by since then. 从那时起已过了许多时间。

十二、副词 by 由“在近旁”引申到(放或搁等)“在一旁”,这时常可用 aside 代替

a. lay (或 put, set) the work (或 the novel) by 放下工作(或这本小说)

b. lay (或 put, set)… by 放弃(不同意见即 the differences),戒除(坏习惯即 the bad habits),积蓄钱(由“将钱搁往一旁”引申过来),为顾客存留(一块新表)[后加 for a customer]

lie by (他)躺在一旁休息,(船)由于暴风雨顶风而停驶[后加 because of the storm]

I always keep some pain-killers by. 我常备一些止痛药在身边。

十三、副词 by 作“顺便”讲,也是“从旁边”引申过来。

Call by 顺便访问

Come by 顺便来访[由“从旁边过来”引申过来]

Drop by everytime you go downtown shopping. 每次你去商业区购买东西,就顺便看看我。

Would you please stop by for one brief minute. 请顺便停下歇一下。

Can 的主要用法

一、can 作“能、会”讲,表示能力;否定式是 cannot

Electricity can drive motors and so on. 电能开动马达等

He cannot operate the optical computer. 他不会操作这台光电脑。

Can you write in German? 你能用德语写吗?

These conditions can give an impetus to trade. 这些条件会促进贸易。

二、注意 can 或 cannot 后面用完成式,则各表示过去“可能”或“不可能”,用于对过去事物的推论

Can he have said so?(当时)他可能(或译“会”)是这样说的吗?(试比较:Could he say so?(当时)他能这样说吗?)

She cannot have seen me yesterday. 她是不可能在昨天看见我的。(试比较:She could not see me yesterday. 她昨天未能见我。)

三、cannot, can… no 作“不可能、决不会”讲,表示对现在情况的判断

Their calculations cannot be correct. 他们的计算决不会准确的。

There can be no knowledge apart from practice. 离开实践的知识是不可能有的。(没按原文结构译)

They can’t be using the laboratory now. 他们现在不可能在用这个实验室。

四、can 可用于带有条件句或假设句的主句中

If he comes, he can help us. 如果他来,他就能够帮助我们。(条件句)

If he should come tomorrow, he can help us to see into the matter. 万一他明天来,他就能够帮助我们调查那件事。(假设句)

五、can 和“be able + 不定式”的用法差异

这两者在意思上差别不大,只是“be able + 不定式”比 can 具有更多的时态形式。

I can tell you the correct time. = I am able to tell you the correct time. 我能告诉你准确的时间。

I am sorry (that) I haven't been able to write a letter to you. 对不起,我一直没能给你写信。(现在完成时。不能用 cannot 代替,因时态各异。)

He said (that) he had not been able to plunge into work in time. 他说他未能及时投入工作。(过去完成时。同上。)

My grandson will be able to send a voice mail in another few years. 再隔几年我的孙子就会发语音邮件。(不要说※:…can send …)

注:当在目前决定将来有否做某事的能力时,也可用 can… 表示。

1) Now I’m very busy, but I can go to the film with you tomorrow. 现在我很忙,但我明天可以跟你一起去看电影。

2) Can you come and see our teacher next Sunday? 下星期天你能来看望我们的老师吗?

六、注意和 can 连用的一些常用词组

He can but ring up his teacher.(现在)他只好给他的老师打电话。

I cannot but feel sorry for you. 我不得不为你感到婉惜。

I cannot help wondering about the phenomena. 对于这些现象我不禁感到奇怪。

We cannot thank you too much. 我们无论怎样感谢你也不算过分。(本义。可意译为:…万分感谢。)

Could 的主要用法

一、could 是 can 的过去式

I could do it yesterday. 我昨天能做那件事。

He told me that he could do it. 他告诉我说,他能够做那件事。

注:注意不宜用 could 表示过去某种具体能力(指在过去某一个场合做某事的能力。)

1) How many tickets were you able to get? 那时你能买到多少张票?

2) The luggage was quite heavy, but he managed to carry it. 当时那行李很重,但他能拿得动。

3) She succeeded in bringing me up to the top of the mountain?(当时)她终于把我带领到山顶。

注:以上三例都不宜用 could 造句。

二、委婉地提出问题或陈述看法

Could you help me lift this iron plate? 你能帮助我抬起这块铁板吗?

What could she be doing at this time of day? 她在这个时候可能在做什么呢?

It could be about 3:30. 现在可能是 3 点 30 分。

I could not go to the library. 我不能去图书馆。

I think you could promote chain shops in this manner. 我想你们还是按这种方式创建连锁店。

这时,could 和 can 没有时间的差别。以上五句用 can 也可,不过用 could 较为客气、谦虚、委婉一些。

三、could 用于条件句和假设句的主句中

If he worked hard last week, he could finish the work. 如果他上周努力工作,他就能完成那项工作。(真实条件句,其主句中 could 指将来,语气委婉。)

If he had worked hard, he could have finished the work. 如果他(当时)努力工作,他早就能够完成那项工作。(假设句。实际上,他过去并没有努力工作,所以他未能完成那项工作。)

四、“could + have + 过去分词”表示现在对过去事物的判断,可译为“本来能够或本来可以…”,暗示当时未实现的动作

They could have completed this work. 他们本来是能够完成这项工作的。(未实现的动作)

He could not have done the experiment.(那时)他是不会做完那个实验的。(原意为:他本来就是不能完成那个实验的。)

We could have done the work better. 我们本来可以把这项工作做得更好些。

Do 的用法判别

一、在疑问句和否定句的谓语动词前部见到 do(包括 does 或 did),则 do 一般作助动词用,本身无实在意义;若在肯定句中用 do,而 do 后又出现主要动词,则系加强语气用

A. Do you go to the computing center every day? 你每天去计算中心吗?

B. Yes, I do. 是,我每天去。(不能用 go 代替 do)。

C. No, I don't. 不,我不是每天去。(后面不再加 go)。

I did not go online yesterday. 昨天我没有上网。

She did do morning exercises this morning. 她今天早晨确实做早操了。(did 后的 do 才是实义动词,表示“做”。)

二、句中谓语为现在一般时或过去一般时,而句首出现 Not only, Scarcely, Never, No sooner, In no case 等词语,这时句中用助动词 do(或 does, did)等提前并颠倒主、谓语语序(详见第 148 节、一)。

Scarcely (或 Hardly) did they speak about the difficulties in their work. 他们很少谈到自已工作中的困难。

She doesn't know and neither does she care. 她不知道也不关心。(这里应以第二个分句的句首出现否定词为准,后面主、谓语采用疑问句格式的颠倒语序。)

Down 的搭配用法及其分类理解

一、副词 down 同有关动词搭配表示“退下、坐下、躺下、倒下、趴下、放下、取下、搬下、拉下、扔下”等以及“打倒、吹倒、砍倒、压倒”等含义时的用法举例

back down(某人)退下;beat down… 打倒(某人),击倒(那扇门);blow down…(暴风雨即 the storm)吹倒(树等);break down(这门)塌下来,(汽车)抛锚,(计划)告吹,(某人或他的健康)垮下来;bring… down 将(椅子等)搬下去,将(小孩)领下去,使(那政府)倒台;call… down 叫(某人)下来,对(他的小说)评价低;climb down 往下爬;face (或 drop) down 卧倒(或趴下);come down 下来;cut down… 砍倒(树等),撂倒(一个人),少(抽烟和喝酒即 smoking and drinking);draw (或 pull)… down 拉下(窗帘即 the curtain);fall down(他)倒下(或摔倒),(计划)失败;get (v.) down(她)蹲下,(他)将(桌子)搬下来,将(树)砍下,使(某人)疲劳或病倒;go down(太阳)下落,(船)下沉,(她)下去或下楼,(墙)倒塌,(这个队即 the team)输了,(那个政府)垮台,(价格)下降等;lay down… 放下(武器即 one’s arms),铺设(铁路),建造(一条新船)[由“放新船下水”引申过来],放下(规则即 the rules),存下(几瓶酒即 a few bottles of wine);lie down 躺下,look down 往下看,瞧不起某人[后加 on sb. ];put down… 放下(杯子即 the cup),放下(工具即 one’s tools)或罢工;run (v.) down(他)往下跑,(水)往下奔流,撞倒(小船即 the boat);sit down 坐下,shut (v.) down(他)关下(窗户),(工厂)倒闭;slip down 滑倒,stand down(他)退下或退席,(他)让(士兵即 the soldiers)撤岗,step down(她)从舞台上下来[后接 from the stage],(他)退下来,(她)辞去(高职)[后加 from the top office];take… down 取下(窗帘),领(客人)下楼;throw down… 扔下(武器),将(杯子)摔地,拒绝(这个建议),迅速趴下[后加 oneself];turn down… 翻下(衣领即 the collar),拒绝(这项计划)[由“翻手将计划书往下扔”引申过来];walk down 往下走等

二、副词 down 与有关动词搭配表示“(雨、水等)流下、落下、倾泻而下”等时的用法举例

beat down… (雨)冲倒(庄稼即 the crops);be corning down in sheets(雨)正大片大片地下着;float down(木材即 logs)顺流漂浮而下;flow down(江河)往下流;pour down 下倾盆大雨[主语用 it];rain down(水)雨点般地落下,(困难)不断地下落在他们身上[后加on them];run down(水)往下奔流,(他)往下奔跑;stream down(她的眼泪即 her tears)往下淌等

三、含副词 down 的动词短语表示“写下、记下、抄下”等时的用法举例

book down… 登记下(一笔款子即 a sum of money);charge… down to sb.’s account 将(货物)记在某人账下;copy down… 记下(他的话),抄下(这道题的答案即 the answer to the problem);get… down 将(电话留言即 the telephone message)记下;go down(他的讲话即 his talk)在我们的记录中写下[后加 in our records],(这本小说)只写到(第一次世界大战)[后加 only to the First world War];put down… 记下(他的电话号码即 his telephone number),将(这台计算机)下在(我的账即 my account)上;take… down 记下(他的演讲即 his speech);write down… 写下(她的证词即 her evidence);be down on paper(这些建议)记录在案等

四、副词 down 跟有关动词连用表示“吞下”、“咽下”、“大口吃下或喝下。时的用法举例

dash down… 迅速喝下(一杯酒等),匆匆写下(一本小说等);drink… down 一口喝下(一杯水);get… down 困难地把(药丸即 the pill 或酒等)喝下;… won't go down(这药丸等)吞不下去;put down so much food(这男孩)吃下那么多的食物;swallow down… 吞下(药或食物等);take down… 口服(药等),带(客人)下楼,拉下(窗户等);wolf down…(他)狼吞虎咽地吃(早饭)等

五、副词 down 跟有关动词连用时表示“降落、击落、撂倒”等含义时的用法举例

bring down… 击落(飞机等),撂倒(一只老虎),使(某人)倒台,带领(小孩)下楼(或下来);come down(两架敌机)在战斗中被击落[后加 in the battle],(我机)安全降落[后加 safely];let the plane down gently 让飞机平稳降落;put (或 set) (v.) down in a heavy fog(使)飞机在浓雾中降落;be sent down(飞机)被击落;shoot down… 击落(飞机),击倒(敌人);shut down(夜幕即 the night)降临等

六、副词 down 跟有关动词搭配表示“下跌、减少、降低、放慢、减弱、衰弱、贬低”等含义时的用法举例

beat down… 使(价格)下跌;break down(他或他的健康)衰落,(汽车)出毛病,(这计划)落空;bring down… 降低(价格),退(烧即 fever),带(某人)下楼;cut down… 削减(价格),砍倒(树),删减(文章即 the article);change down(汽车)放慢车速;die down(火、风、闹声等)逐渐减弱;ease down(the speed)放慢;force down… 压低(价格),迫使(飞机)降落;go down(价格、温度等)下降,(风)减弱,(公司或健康)正在衰退[用进行时];slow (v.) down(汽车)放慢速度,(她)放慢(机器)速度;put… down 减少(开支即 the expenditure),贬低(某人或他的书等);run (v.) down 紧缩(生产即 the production),裁减(营业员 the salesmen 等),贬低(某人成就即 sb.’s achievements);step down… 逐步减少(开支或电压等);take… down 压低或刹(某人的傲气即 sb.’s pride),使(灯光)变暗;turn (v.) down 将(灯光)调暗,将(无线电)音量调低,(经济)衰退等

七、副词 down 和有关动词搭配表示“平静下来、冷静下来、平息、镇定、镇静”时的用法举例

beat down… 平息(叛乱即 the rebellion);calm (v.) down(海洋)平静下来,(那个激动的女孩即 that excited girl)镇静或冷静下来,使(自己即 one self)镇定;cool (v.) down… 使(发火的人即 the angry person)冷静下来,缓和(通货膨胀即 the inflation),(发动机即 the engine)冷下来,(他的兴趣即 his interest)冷下来;die down(战斗即 the fighting)逐渐平息,(风)减弱;go down(风、浪)平静下来,(火)逐渐减弱;settle (v.) down(局势即 the situation)平静下来,(孩子)安下心来,使(婴儿)安静下来等

八、副词 down 作“在下面、在低处或在地平线下”讲时跟有关动词连用的情况

come down (这个家族即 the family)没落;get down and remain down 弯身蹲下;go down(太阳)落山;hold (或 keep) down… 保持(价格)低水平(或不涨);stay (或 stop, remain) down(温度)保持低水平,(他)呆在(下面); stand farther down(他)站在更低的地方[用进行时]等

九、副词 down 和有关动词搭配表示“离开大城市去较小城镇、乡村或去市中心商业区以及去南方”时的用法举例

go from Shanghai down to the home-town 从上海去到故乡;live down on the farm 住在农场;run down to the country 跑到农村去,go down town 去市里商业区;go down to… 南下去(广东)等

注:若由小地方去大城市,则常用“有关动词 + up”表示。例如:I am going up to Beijing. 我准备上北京。

十、副词跟有关动词搭配表示“上上下下干净地、牢固地、彻底地”时的用法举例

fasten down… 扣紧(箱盖即 the lid of the box);hammer down… 用锤子将(盖子)钉紧;nail down… 将(盖子)钉牢;paste a stamp down on the envelop 用浆糊将邮票牢固地贴在信封上;rub… down 将(小孩)上下擦干净,将(桌子)擦得很光滑;sweep down… 将(房间)彻底打扫;wipe down… 将(楼梯台阶即 the steps of the stairs)擦干净等

十一、副词 down 作表语时的含义要结合上下文并联想其常用的含有 down 的固定动词短语

I’ll be down at once. 我会马上下来。(联系 go down, get down 等。)

They were down with flu. 他们患流感病倒。(联系 come down with flu, be taken down with flu 等。)

The computer was down. 这台计算机坏了。(联系 break down 等。)

The house was down. 这房子已拆倒了。(联系 be pulled down, come down, be taken down 等。)

The tide was down. 潮水退了。(联系 go down 等。)

The barriers were down. 这些障碍(或隔阂)消除了。(联系 be pulled down, be knocked down, be pushed down 等。)

She was afraid her classmates would be down on her for speaking like that. 她当时害怕她的同学会由于她那样讲话而瞧不起她。(联系 look down on sb. )。

He was down on his job. 他工作没做好(或失败了)。(联系 fall down…, topple down on… 等。)

The fire was down (或 out). 火灭了。(联系 burn down, burn out。)

Many trees were down. 那时有许多棵树倒了。(联系 blow down, be cut down等。)

十二、副词 down 的其它习惯用法

Down below it was quite cool.(那时)楼下(或地底下)很凉快。

Everyone from the richest down to the poorest must respect the laws of a country. 从最富的到最穷的每个人都必须尊重国家的法律。

Down to the beginning of next year. 直到明年初。

Read down to the middle of this page. 读到这页的中间。

Down with… 放下(枪),打倒(反动政府即 counter revolutionary government),不要(抽烟)。

Walk up and down 来回走;

Turn things upside down 颠倒是非等

十三、介词 down 作“向或在…下端或下游、沿或顺着…往下”等讲时用法举例

carry goods down the hill 顺着山往下搬运货物;climb down a tree(猫)顺着树爬下来;cut down the stairs 沿着中间位置剪下;be half way down the hill(这房子)位于半山腰;go down(船)顺着(江河即 a river)而下,(他)走向(花园)那一端;go off down the hill 动身下山;hurry down the street 沿着街道匆匆走去;look down the street 往街道下端看去;pass down the bus 往公共汽车车厢里边走;run down…(水)顺(河)往下流,(小孩)沿着(街道)往下跑;walk down the stairs 走下楼等

Each 和 Every 的用法

一、each 作“各自的”、“每个的”讲,作形容词用

There are many trees on each side of the river. 河流两岸有许多树。

Each element has some special properties. 每种元素都有些特殊性质。

二、作“各个”、“每个”讲,作代词用

Each has his advantages. 各人都有其优点。

He gave each of us (或 give us each) a cellular mobile phone. 他给我们每个人一个蜂窝移动电话。

Here are a crowd of women, each hold holding a baby in her arms. 这里有一群妇女,每人抱着一个婴孩。(each 还常用于独立分词结构中。)

三、作“各个”讲,当副词用

Give them two books each. (= Give each of them two books.) 给他们每个人两本书。

The students have ten books each. (= Each of the students has ten books.) 这些学生各有十本书。(each 用于 have,则为同位语。)

Different kinds of waves have each the same three characteristics: amplitude, frequency and length. 不同的波(各)都有三个相同的特性:幅度、频率和波长。

四、注意 each 作同位语的用法(参阅本节三和第 146 节)

五、each other 作“互相”、“彼此”讲

We help each other. 我们互相帮助。

They speak English to each other. 他们彼此讲英语。

They held each other’s hands.(当时)他们相互握手。

六、each 和 every 词义辨异

I. every 只能作形容词,只有在与名词连用或构成复合词(如 everybody 每个人)时,才能作主语或宾语等,而 each 还可以作代词,直接作主语或宾语(见本文第二项例句)。注意 every 用于部分否定的句子中(见第 9节、五)。

II. every 虽指每个,但概括全体,而 each 仅指“每个”,却以“各…”为主。

We must correct every single error. 我们必须改正所有错误。(着重全体。)

They each have a tool. 他们每人有一件工具。(“个别”意义较重。)

-ed 结尾的或不规则动词的过去分词用法和判别

一、过去分词的用法

I. 构成现在、过去和将来三个完成时的组成部分(见第 134 节、八 ~ 十)。

II. 过去分词用于不定式的完成时态(见第 53 节 、一、二)。

III. 过去分词用于构成各种被动态(详见第 135 节)。

These computers have been infected by computer viruses. 这些计算机已被病毒感染。

The contract was worked out very carefully. (那时)该合同订得很仔细。

Ⅳ. 过去分词作表语:

The book is well written. 这本书写得好。

The cup is broken. 这个杯子是破的。

注:The cup was broken yesterday. 这个杯子是昨天打破的。本句中过去分词和 was 构成被动态。关于表语和被动态差别,可参阅第 135 节、三。

The boy is easier led than driven. 这男孩易于接受劝导,而不接受强迫。

Ⅴ. 过去分词作定语,按位置分为前置定语和后置定语。

A. 前置定语一般是单个过去分词或只带有说明过去分词的副词:

a solved problem 一个解决了的问题;

boiled water 开(过了的)水;

the insulated body 被绝缘的物体;

newly invented machines 新发明的机器;

best known elements 最熟悉的元素;

highly developed tertiary industries 高度发展的第三产业;

so-called robots(或 what are called robots)所谓的机器人等

B. 后置定语可以是单个过去分词,也可以是过去分词短语:

the problem discussed(被)讨论的问题;

a book written by the old scientist 一本由老科学家写的书;

the amount of heat given off in there action 在该反应中所放出的热量;

the problem spoken of at the meeting 在会上(被)谈到的那个问题等

注:如果在上述过去分词前加用 to be 两词,则整个短语分别变为:要(被)讨论的问题、一本将由老科学家编写的书、将在该反应中放出的热量、将在会上(被)谈到的那个问题等。如果改为加用 being,则上述短语分别变为:正在(被)讨论的问题;一本由老科学家正在编写的书… 等。

C. 注意“名词 + 过去分词”作前置定语的情况,这时该名词表示过去分词所表示动作的工具或行为主体:

a computer-controlled machine tool 一台由计算机控制的机床;

man-made ice 人造冰;

a silver-plated cup 一个镀银的杯子;

hand-made goods 手工制品;

export-oriented economy 外向型经济等

注:有些过去分词已转化为具有被动意义的形容词,例如:driven gear 从动齿轮,finished products(制)成品;a very complicated problem 一个十分复杂的问题等

D. 过去分词短语作非限制性定语,一般为后置定语,相当于非限制性定语从句的紧缩形式。例如:

What makes the computer introduced only some 30 years ago (= which was introduced some 30 years ago), so valuable a production tool? 计算机大约是在30年前问世的。是什么使它成为有价值的生产工具呢?

At present we are discussing the new suggestion, brought up by Mr.YeHang (或 which has been brought up by Mr. YeHang). 叶航先生提出了新建议,我们正在进行讨论。

注:上述非限制性定语翻译时常采用分译法。

Ⅵ. 过去分词作状语,用以表示时间、原因、让步、条件、方式或陪衬情况。必须注意过去分词表示的被动行为对象是句中主语。例如:

Heated, the metal expands. 金属受热就膨胀。(时间)

Equipped with the electronic brains, the factory overfulfils its production plan every month. 由于配备了电脑,工厂每月超额完成生产计划。(原因)

Given a new-type computer, we will carry out this work much better. 如果给予一台新型的计算机,我们进行这项工作就会好得多了。(条件)

注:如果谓语为将来时,过去分词短语“given + 名词”作状语,常用于表示条件。又如:Given plenty of labour, the job will be completed on schedule. 如果提供充分的劳动力,这项工作就将准时完成。(若用 was 代替 will be,则前面的 Given 短语变为表示原因,句意就改为:由于提供了充分的劳动力,这项工作准时完成了。)

Considered as a building material, wood is neither strong nor cheap. 虽把木材看作是一种建筑材料,但它既不坚固又不便宜。(让步)

The metal or nonmetal is written first in the formula, followed by oxygen. 在化学式中先写金属或非金属,其后是氧。(方式状语)

The chemistry professor sat there surrounded by many students. 化学教授坐在那儿,有许多学生围着他。(方式或陪衬)

过去分词短语作状语,一般用逗号与句中其它成分隔开,但个别也有不用逗号的情况,如本句即是如此。

如果过去分词短语接在名词后面,前后有逗号,那么就必须根据上下文判别它是状语(条件、方式、时间、原因等)还是非限制性定语。例如:

Sometimes a coarse wheel, properly used, gives a much better finish than the traditional fine wheel. 只要使用得当,有时一个粗砂轮比传统的细砂轮能提供远为更好的精细加工。(句中过去分词短语作状语。)

Our research group, led by Prof . Ouyang, is developing software. 我们研究小组在欧阳教授领导下正在开发软件。(同上)

The two companies, united by the common interest, have been supporting each other in the last five years. 这两个公司凭共同的利益联合在一起,在过去的五年中一直互相支持。

The new Law of Sea, discussed by many countries, will be brought into effect in the near future. 这个新的海洋法经过许多国家讨论后,将在不久的将来生效。

Chemical energy, stored in the ground in the form of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, is the energy of greatest importance to the world. 化学能贮藏在地下的固态、液态或气态燃料内。它是对世界具有很重要意义的一种能量。(过去分词短语作非限制性定语。)

Ⅶ. “名词 + 过去分词”构成“主谓”结构或作表语、定语等用。

A. 用于构成“主谓”结构的三种情况:

(a) 独立分词(过去分词)结构:

This (being) done, we went home. 这件事做完后,我们就回家了。(时间)

The assembling of the machine (being) completed, I started operating it. 机器安装完毕,我就开始操作。

(b)“介词 + 名词 + 过去分词”结构。其中介词 with 和 without 尤为常见,一般用作状语或定语。

After much time spent, they solved all the problems. 花了许多时间以后,他们解出了所有的题。

This process is known as heat passed on by conduction. 这个过程称为通过传导的传热。

I work with the lamp lighted. 我亮着灯工作。(状语)

Without a word more spoken, they went away. 没有再说一句话,他们就走开了。(状语)

Atoms with the outer layer filled do not form compounds. 外层填满的原子不形成化合物。(定语)

China’s railway network has had a significant renovation with most trains’ running time altered and their speed raised. 中国铁路网已有了一次重大的改革,大多数火车运行时刻有变化而且车速提高。

B.“名词 + 过去分词”作表语、定语或被动态谓语组成部分。严格地说,这里名词作状语,用以表示方式、手段等。

This production process has been computer controlled. 这个生产过程已由计算机来控制了。(被动态谓语组成部分)

They turn out a lot of heat-treated plates everyday. 他们每天生产大量的经过热处理的钢板。(定语)

These trees were machine planted, and those (were) hand planted. 这些树是机器种植的,而那些树是人工种植的。(表语)

C. “名词 + 过去分词或其短语”作报刊标题等(参阅本专题第二项 Ⅶ)

Ⅶ. 过去分词作宾语补语。句中动词通常是感觉动词(see 看,find 发觉等)和使役动词(have 使,让;make 使;get 使得)等。例如:

They found Beijing greatly changed. 他们发觉北京大大地变了样。

We noticed these things changed. 我们注意到这些东西换掉了。

We were there ourselves and saw it done. 我们亲自在那儿,看着把那件事做好的。

When you talk, you have to at least make yourself understood. 你说话,至少要让别人听懂。

He got (或 had) his high defination TV repaired (或 serviced). 他请人把他的高清晰度电视机修好了。

I consider the two wires as connected. 我认为这两根线接上了。

Ⅸ. 过去分词作主语补语:

They should be kept informed of this matter. 应该让他们知道这件事。(be informed of… 作“接到……的通知”讲。)比较:We should keep them informed of this matter.(宾语补语)

The ingots can be seen rolled into aluminium foil in some plants. 在某些工厂里,可以看到这些铝锭被轧制成铝箔。比较:In some plants one can see the ingots rolled into aluminium foil.(宾语补语)

The glass rod was found electrified.(当时)发现那根玻璃棒带电了。

X. “when, if 或 unless 等 + 过去分词”是个省略句,从句中省略了与主句相同的主语及其相应的 be。例如:

The energy stored in the clock spring is released when needed. 钟的发条所贮藏的能量,在需要时就释放出来。

Anybody, when heated to a sufficient high temperature, becomes a source of light. 任何物体,当它被加热到足够的高温时,就变成了一种光源。

Suspension—a mixture that will separate if left to stand. 悬浮液是一种混合物,如果让它静置,它就会发生分离。

A body in motion remains in motion at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force. 若没有受到外力作用,运动的物体继续作匀速直线运动。

A beam of light will not bend round corners unless made to do so with the help of a reflecting device. 光束不能拐弯,除非借助于反射装置才能拐弯。(句中to do so… 为主语补语。)

Ⅺ. 某些过去分词转化为从句的连接词:

The machines will run well provided that they are greased in time. 这些机器只要及时上油,就会运转得很好。

Granted that this is true, what conclusion can you reach? 即使这是实际情况,你又能得到什么结论呢?

二、过去分词的用法判别和注意点

I. 过去分词前面为 have (或 has, had),本身又不作后面名词的定语,则过去分词用于各种完成时态(见第 135 节关于完成时的节选)。

II. 除上述情况以外,过去分词可作被动态谓语、定语、状语、宾语补语、主语补语,但它始终具有被动态含义。

III. 过去分词的关键特点是被动态(除用于完成时态以外),可利用这一点来把过去分词和一般过去时区分开。例如:

The results obtained differed depending on the substance used. 所得到的结果取决于所用的物质而各不相同。

这里三个 -ed 中,第一、三个各与前面的名词有被动态关系,可视为作后置定语。differed 是不及物动词变来的,加上前后都没有名词,根本作不了定语。它在句中作谓语的过去时形式,无论从语法分析和逻辑意义看来,都特别合适。

Ⅳ. 注意个别的过去分词(多半是一些不及物动词)并不表示被动的意思,而是表示该动作完成后所表示的状态或景象。例如:

He is gone. 他不在这里了。(本句是 He has gone 后的现状。)

I saw the newly arrived chief engineer. 我见到了那位新到的总工程师。

Spring is come. 春满人间.

The leaves are fallen in the garden. 花园里叶落满地。类似的例子还有:returned students 归国留学生;retired workers 退休工人;the risen sun 升起了的太阳等

Ⅴ. 过去分词短语作定语,一般位于所修饰的名词后面。有时,有副词修饰过去分词时,过去分词短语仍可作名词的前置定语。例如:above mentioned rules(上述规则)等。同时还须注意 copperplated containers(镀有铜的容器)中那种过去分词短语的用法(详见本节一、Ⅴ-C)。单个过去分词作定语,可位于名词前面或后面。

Ⅵ. 过去分词或其短语作状语时多半前后打逗号,这时过去分词所表示的行为系与句中主语有关,但只是被动态关系。有时过去分词短语有逗号隔开,却是说明前面名词的定语;有时过去分词短语没有逗号隔开,却不是定语,而是状语,故必须进行逻辑判别。例如:

Water solutions of all acids can turn a certain natural dye, called litmus, from blue to red. 所有酸的水溶液,都能使称之为石蕊的某一种天然染料由蓝变红。(非限制性定语。联系 called litmus 前加 which is,就变为非限制性定语从句。)

The volume of all the molecules in a gas is very small compared with the volume of the gas itself at ordinary pressure. 气体中所有分子的体积,与常压下该气体本身的体积相比,是非常小的。(状语)

Ⅶ. 注意过去分词作后置定语时,后面又引出过去分词短语、不定式短语或从句的情况。

A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements chemically combined in definite proportions by weight. (composed… elements 说明 substance, chemically… weight elements.) 化合物是由两个或两个以上的元素所构成的物质,但这些元素是按一定的重量比例化合的。(直译为:化合物是由按一定重量比例化合的两个或两个以上的元素所构成的物质。)

A computer is an apparatus built to perform routine calculations with speed, reliability, and ease. 计算机是为了快速、可靠、容易地进行程序计算而制造出来的机器。

The thing formed when an element combines with oxygen is called oxide. 当一种元素同氧化合时所生成的东西就叫做氧化物。(从句说明 formed。)

The oxide Fe3O4 formed by burning iron in oxygen is different from the oxide Fe2O3 produced when iron rusts. 铁在氧中燃烧所生成的氧化物 Fe3O4,是和铁生锈时所产生的氧化物 Fe2O3 不同的。(从句说明 produced。)

Ⅷ. 注意“名词 + 过去分词短语”用作报刊和文章的标题

Air pollution called No.1 health enemy. 空气污染 —— 健康的头号敌人。

Investment shortage eased 投资短缺缓和。

Sparetime education promoted 业余教育获得发展。

US missile said to bring down Iraq plane.(据悉)美国导弹击落伊拉克飞机。

Ⅸ:有时阅读科技文章中注释性的文字时,就得注意你看的是句子还是词组。例如在英文版科学辞典内常有这样一些文字:

Electrical Energy. The energy associated with electric charges and their movements. Measured in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours. One watt-hour equals 860 calories. 电能。由电荷和电荷运动结合而成的能量. 以瓦特小时或千瓦小时计量。1 瓦特小时等于 860 卡。

上段文字中第二部分不是一个句子,associated(结合)不是过去时形式,而是过去分词作 energy(能量)的定语。第三部分 measured(测量,计量)也不是过去时,而是过去分词。它与第二部分不同的,是把 measured 前的 energy 和 is 省略了。第四部分才是一个完整的句子。辞典为了节省篇幅,有时采用这样一种压缩文字的办法,因此我们在阅读时就要注意这种特殊情况,学会“对于具体情况作具体的分析”方法,广开思路,特别注意从意义上进行逻辑判断。

X. “being + 过去分词”的用法比较特殊,详见第 23 节。

Either 和 Either… or 的用法

一、形容词 either 作“两者中间任何一个的”讲

You may use either home computer. 这两台家用计算机你可以使用。(指两台家用计算机中任何一台而言。)

It can be done in either way. 可按这种方法做,也可按那种方法做。

He sat in the car with a student on either side of him. 他坐在汽车里,左右两边各有一个学生。

Take either half you like. They are exactly the same. 你喜欢那个就拿那个。这两个一半完全一样。(注意不要用 any 代替 either。三个以上供选择,则用 any 为妥。)

二、代词 either 作“两者之一”、“两者中间任何一方”讲

You may buy either of the mobile phones. 你可以买这两个移动电话中的任何一个。

Either of these (two) words is correct. 这两个词(中任何一个)都正确。

We do not want either of the pagers. 这两个寻呼机我们都不要。(或译为“这两个寻呼机中任何一个我们都不要”。也可写成:We want neither of the pagers.)

注:当“either (或 neither) of + 复数名词”作主语时,其谓语按单数形式考虑。

但在口语中也有用谓语的复数形式。例如:Is (或 Are) either (或 neither) of the girls going to the net friend club? 这两个女孩都(或都不)准备去网友俱乐部吗?

三、副词 either 作“也”讲,用于否定句

He is not wrong, nor is Mr. Zhou either. 他没有错,周先生也没有错。(也可改为“… wrong and neither is Mr. Zhou.)

The child cannot speak, he cannot write, either. 这个小孩不会说话,也不会写。(这里第二部分也可改为:neither (或 nor) can he write.)

If he doesn't go, I won't go either. 如果他不去,那么我也不去。(第二部分也可改为 neither will I go.)

China will not be a superpower, not either or ever in the future. 中国不做超级大国,现在不做,将来也永远不做。

注:在肯定句中一般用 too,also 作“也”讲。否定句中用 either。在后一种情况下,若用 neither 作“也”讲,则句中谓语一般用肯定式。例如:

I don’t know either.

I know neither. 我也不知道。

四、连接词 either… or 作“或……或”、“是……还是……”、“不是……就是”讲

Either come in or go out. 或者进来,或者出去。

Do you speak either English or French? 你说英语还是法语?

Crude oil contains gases and solids either dissolved or dispersed. 原油含有气体和固体。这些气体和固体不是溶于其内便是分散于其内。

These electronic musical instruments were made either in Tianjin or in Beijing. 这些电子乐器不是天津制造的,就是北京制造的。

In the absence of force, a body will either remain at rest or continue to move with constant speed in a straight line. 没有外力时,物体或者保持静止,或者继续作等速直线运动。

Current theories, either empirical or electronic, do not appear to account for this result. 现代的经验理论也好,电子理论也好,看来都不能解释这种结果。(本句可改为:Current theories, neither empirical nor electronic, appear to account for this result.)

It is wrong to regard our work either as totally good or as completely bad. 把我们的工作不是说成样样都好就是一无是处,这都是错误的。

I was advised either to telephone or to write to the hotel for reservations. 有人建议我或者打电话或者写信给旅馆预订房间。

Either he is right or I am. 或是他对,或是我对。(也可写成:Either he or I am right.)

Enough 的用法

一、形容词 enough 作“充足的”、“足够的”讲,作定语时,可位于所修饰的名词前后

The coal is enough for two years. 这些煤足供两年用。(表语)

We have enough time (或 time enough) to read the reference books. 我们有足够的时间阅读参考书。(定语)

The Smiths have enough money (或 money enough) for John to buy a car. 史密斯家有钱,足够给约翰买一辆汽车。(同上)

注:当 enough 所修饰的名词后面跟有较长的状语修饰时,enough 更宜于置于所修饰的名词后面(见上述第 2,3 句)。此外,若用形容词 sufficient 代替 enough 作定语时,则它只能位于所修饰的名词前面。

二、副词 enough 作“够”讲。它修饰形容词、副词或动词时,一般位于其后面

We were fortunate enough to get an empty car.(当时)我们运气够好,搞到了一辆空车。

When the molecules of a solid move fast enough, the solid melts and becomes a liquid. 当固体分子运动足够快时,固体就熔融并变为液体。

He has talked quite enough for today. 他今天说话说够了。

三、名词 enough 作“充足”、“足够”、“足够的东西”讲

Most people here have enough to eat and sufficient to put on。 这里大多数人都是丰衣足食。

I have had enough. Thank you. 我已经够了,谢谢您。

She has had enough of somebody (或 something). 她对某人(或某事)已感到腻烦而无法再容忍。(由“对……受够”引申过来。)

四、注意有时 enough 在句型“cannot… too much”中可代替其中的 too much。其实这是由“够了”引伸到具有“太多”或“多了”之意。

You cannot take enough (= too much) care. 你不论怎么小心,也不会过分。

He couldn't go back fast enough. 他恨不得马上回去。(原意为:我回去速度无论多快,都不可能算够快。)

注:应注意上下文和语序,下面句子就不属于本句型:He has lived in London for ten years,but strangely enough he can't speak English. 他在伦敦住了十年,但够奇怪的是他不会讲英语。(插入语)

五、enough 的其它用法

Ten yards of carpet will be enough and to spare. 十码地毯将绰绰有余。

I was fool enough to believe. 我(当时)傻到信以为真。

I was enough of a fool not to think of that. 我真傻到没有想到那件事。

He said he would come, and sure enough he came. 他说要来,后来果然来了。

That’s enough of this nonsense. 一派胡言(已经)够了!

Ever 的用法

一、副词 ever 作“曾经”、“以往”、“在任何时候”讲,通常用于一般疑问句、否定句、条件句中或用于最高级形容词后面的定语从句中,有时也用于进行比较的句中

Have you ever been to Tianjin?你曾经去过天津吗?

Did you ever see such a design while you were in Beijing? 当你在北京时,你见过这样的设计吗?

No one has ever done so before. 从来没有人这样做过。

If you ever happen to go to Beijing, you must bring us those English books. 如果你有机会去北京,一定给我们带来那些英语书。

She is one of the very best girl-students I ever have met. 她是我见到的最最好的女学生之一。

Can the best student become better than ever? 最好的学生还能比以前更好吗?

二、ever 用于将来发生的动作,表示强调的意思

Please don't ever do that again! 请绝对不要再做那件事了。(祈使句常表示将来动作。)

She won't ever speak of it any more. 她决不会再讲这件事。

If you ever see George, give him my kind regards. 如果你将来某时见到乔治,请代我向他问好。(当主句为将来时或用祈使句表示将来时态时,条件或时间状语从句内的现在时态实际上表示将来时。)

三、ever 用于表示目前的习惯性动作或状态

It is ever thus. 常常如此。

I hardly ever see him nowadays. 这些日子我一直很少见到他。

Do you ever go to concerts? 你有时去音乐会吗?

四、有时站在过去观点谈将来的情况

He nearly despaired of ever reaching the top. 他那时对于达到顶峰几乎丧失了信心。

五、在疑问句中,疑问词 how, what, where, when, which 或 who + ever 作“究竟如何、究竟什么、究竟何处、究竟何时、究竟哪个或哪些、究竟谁”讲;还常可连写为 however, whatever, wherever, whenever, whichever, whoever

How ever (= However) did he get out of debt? 他究竟怎样摆脱债务的?

What ever (= Whatever) was meant by his proposal? 当时他的提案的意思究竟指什么?

Where ever (= Wherever) did you find the lost gold watch? 你究竟在哪里找到这块丢失的金表的?

Who ever (= whoever) did that? 究竟是谁干了那件事?

Which ever (= Whichever) did he choose? 他究竟挑选了哪个?

When ever (= whenever) did you see her? 你究竟何时见到她的?

注:上述六句中的 ever 在非正式文体中还可以用 on earth, in the world, the hell, the devil 或 the dickens 来代替。

六、带有 ever 的一些常用词组用法举例

We are determined to move forward for ever. 我们决心永远向前迈进。(也可用 forever 代替 for ever.)

He hardly ever looks up a word. 他难得查一个词。

She scarcely ever saw such a thing. 她几乎从未见过这样的东西。

She scarcely ever comes here now. 她现在难得来这里了。

This alloy is ever so strong. 这种合金非常坚固。

He has been keeping up his study ever since he began in 1958. 自从 1958 年开始以来他一直坚持学习。

Work as hard as ever you can. 尽可能努力工作吧!

-ever 构成的合成词的用法和判别 Whoever, Whichever, Whatever, Whenever, Wherever, However

以 -ever 构成的合成词在科技文章中常见的如下:

whoever 谁都……;无论谁

whichever 随便哪个;无论哪个

whatever 凡是……的;无论什么

whenever 随时;无论什么时候

wherever 无论哪里;无论到哪里

however 无论;可是

一、基本用法

ever 本是一个加强语气的词,这里作为词的后缀加于疑问词之后,不仅使疑问词语气有所加强(参阅第 40 节、五),而且也可变为具有让步含义,用于引出让步状语从句(参阅下面第 Ⅱ 项)。如从句中带有情态动词 may,也可表示一种可能性。-ever 引出的从句还可用作名词从句。现分别叙述如下:

I. 引出名词从句:

Who ever has eyes can see what great achievements we have made in the past 25 years. 凡是有眼的人都能看到我们过去25年所取得的巨大成就。(主语从句)

You may give the used car to whoever wants it. 你可以将这辆旧汽车送给任何要这辆车的人。(介词 to 后的宾语从句)

We were ready to do whatever our mother wanted us to do. 当时母亲要我们干什么。我们就准备干什么。(todo 的宾语从句)

What ever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. 凡是值得做的,就值得好好去做。(主语从句)

You may take whichever book will interest you. 哪本书你感兴趣,你就可以拿哪本书。(宾语从句)

He may write about whatever subject deals with test-tube babies. 他可写涉及试管婴孩的任何题目。(介词宾语从句)

Whichever comes first may have enough time to do this experiment. 无论哪个先来,他就可以有足够时间做这个实验。(主语从句)

II. 引出让步状语从句:

Whoever you may be, you have no right to do such a thing. 不论你是谁,你都无权做这种事。(可省略 may。)

Whatever the reason maybe, the fact remains. 不论什么理由,事实依然变。(同上)

Whatever happens (或 may happen), we will not change our plan. 不管发生什么事,我们决不改变计划。

Whatever shape of a body may be, it is always possible to find out its volume. 不管物体形状如何,总是能求出它的体积的。

You must finish this experiment today, whichever way you do it. 不管你用什么方法,这个实验你务必于今天做完。

However perfect a pager is today, it will become outmoded in the future. 不管今天寻呼机如何完善,它在将来仍将变为过时。

Whenever our motherland needs me, I will respond to her call. 无论什么时候,只要祖国需要我,我就一定响应祖国的号召。

Wherever you go, you will always find the same thing. 不论你去哪里,你总会发现同样的事情。

It is a difficulty to be avoided wherever (it is) possible. 这是无论在哪里都要尽可能避免的困难。

It is a very fine house, whomever it belongs to. 这是一个好房子,不管它是属于谁的。(在口语中也可用 whoever 代替 whomever。)

注:以上各句可用“no matter + 相应的疑问词”构成另一结构类型的让步状语从句代之,而句义相同。

注意 whatever 等词引出的让步从句内的 may 有时可省略(见上面第 1,2 句)。此外,如果改用 “may have + 过去分词“,则表示过去的动作。例如:

The meeting was a success, however inadequate the preparations may have been. 不管(当时)准备得如何不充分,但是这个会开得还是成功的。

He had to continue to study hard, whatever progress he may have made.(当时)不论他进步多大,他仍须继续努力学习。

III. 引出具有强调语气的时间、地点、方式状语从句:

Wherever there is plenty of sun and rain, the fields are green. 哪里阳光雨水充足,哪里的田野就绿油油的。(地点状语从句)

Whenever people say that sort of thing, you know they don't mean cloning technology. 每当人们说那种事时,你知道他们并不是指克隆技术而言的。(时间状语从句)

You may solve the problem whichever way you like. 哪种方法你喜欢,就用哪种方法解这道题。(方式状语从句)

He goes there whenever he has time. 他一有时间就到那儿去。(时间状语从句)

We will go wherever our service is needed in our motherland. 在祖国境内,需要我们到哪里服务,我们就去哪里。(地点状语从句)

Ⅳ. however 作“可是”、“不过”讲,作插入语用;有时作连词。例如:

However, we will look into the matter later. 不过我们以后还要调查这件事。(插入语)

Kerosene molecules, however, have longer carbon chains than gasoline molecules. 可是煤油的分子比汽油分子具有更长的碳链。(插入语)

He said that it was so; however, he was mistaken. 他说这是如此;可是他错了。(连词)

Ⅴ. 在疑问句中 however, whatever, wherever, whenever, whichever, whoever 作“究竟如何、究竟什么、究竟何处、究竟何时、究竟哪个(或哪些)、究竟谁”讲。注意其中 ever 还可分出来单独写。详见第 40 节、五。

二、判别时的几个注意点

I. 如何判别 whatever, whoever, whichever 引导的从句是名词性从句还是让步从句。

当 whatever 等词引导名词性从句时,主句中一定有一个成分(主语、宾语或介词宾语)要由从句来顶替,故从句和主句之间多半就没有逗号。例如:

Whatever we do should be in keeping with our plan. 那时凡是我们所做的,都应和我们的计划相一致。(顶主句的主语)

We will do whatever the people think necessary. 凡是人民认为需要做的事,我们就要去做。(顶主句的宾语)

He succeeded in whatever he undertook. 那时凡是他所承担的事情,他都成功了。(顶主句中介词的宾语)

With the development of modern electrical engineering, we can transmit power to wherever it is needed. 随着现代电力工程的发展,我们能把电力输送到需要电力的任何地方。(顶主句中介词 to 的宾语)

Whoever did it made a mistake. 当时无论谁做此事,就犯了错误。(顶主句的主语)

II. whatever 在让步从句中作表语用时,可以省略 be。

Friction always opposes the motion, whatever its direction. 不论方向如何,摩擦总是阻碍运动的。

III. 注意 whatever 作定语用时的两种词序。

whatever 可以修饰名词(见下面第 1 句),作“无论怎样的”讲,但修饰 any 或当前面有否定词时,则 whatever 就放在所修饰的词的后面(见下面第 2、3、4、5 句)。

Whatever weather it is, we will carry out this test. 不管天气怎样(原意为“不管什么样的天气”),我们一定要进行这个试验。

We cannot see anyone whatever. 无论什么样的人我们也看不见。

No one whatever would design those old-fashioned machines. 无论谁也不会去设计那些老式机器。

There is no doubt whatever about that. 关于那件事绝无疑义。

In mechanics the word "resistance" is generally used to mean anything whatever that tends to oppose motion. 在力学中,“阻力“这个词一般用来指凡是趋向于阻碍运动的任何作用而言。

Except 和介词 But 用法比较

这里讨论的 but 仅作“除……以外”讲,不涉及 but 其它词义的用法。

介词 but 和 except 用法差别如下:

All succeeded except him. 除了他,所有人都成功了。(如果句末部分挪到句首,则必须用 Except for him。详见第 30 节 But 专题。由于出现 all,可用 All but he [或 him] 代替。)

There is nothing on the table but a credit card. 桌子上除了有一张信用卡以外,别无它物。(在否定句中 but 可用 except 或 besides 代替。)

a. He didn't know where the net friend club was, except that it was near the railway station.(当时)他不知道网友俱乐部在哪里,只知道它在火车站附近。(连词 that 引出介词宾语从句。不宜用 but 代替 except。)

b. She knew nothing but (或 except) that we would soon come here.(当时)她只知道我们很快来这里。(因为有 nothing, 使 but 和 except 可互换。)

He has travelled every where but in this part of the country. 在这个国家里,除了这一部分以外,他已是到处游遍了。(句中也可用 except 代替 but,因前面出现 everywhere。参阅第 30 节 But 专题第二项。)

I could do nothing but (或 except) wait for the experts to arrive. 我无能为力,只有等待专家到来。(注意 but 或 except 在前面出现 nothing 时常可互相替代。由于前面出现动词 do,后面不定式 wait 前不必带 to。)

It is too late. We have no choice but (或 except) to stay here. 太晚了。我们别无选择,只有呆在这里。(在否定句中 but 和 except 一般可互代。)

Now there is nothing they could do except (或 but) give up this idea. 现在他们能做的只能是放弃这个想法。(同上)

He knows nothing but (或 except) the mathematics. 他只知道数学。(用法同上句。本句原意为:除了数学,他什么都不知道。)

His work is anything but excellent. 他的工作一点也不好。(不宜用 except 代替 but,因 except 后不用形容词。)

He is nothing but a teacher. 他只是一名教师。(句中 nothing but 系固定词组。)

注 1:如果上下文出现 all, everyone, everything, nothing, no + 名词, anything, nowhere, anywhere, everywhere 等之类的词,并且 except 后出现的是名词,代词、动词不定式时,一般就可用 but 替代。但固定词组 be nothing but…(只不过,仅仅是…)或 be anything but…(决不是…)中的 but,尤其后者还可容许用形容词,则也不宜用 except 代替 but(见上例 9)。但 nothing but that 接宾语从句,可用 except that 接宾语从句代替(详见第 3 句 b 例)。在其它情况下,两者一般也都不宜互相替换。

注 2:在 except 和 but 后接动词不定式或其短语时,尤其当前面出现相应的动词 do 时,通常不定式前都不带 to。可对比上面第 5、6 句。

注 3:参阅第 14 节第四项 Apart from, Besides, Except, But 用法比较。

First 的用法

一、first 作序数词或形容词用,“第一”、“最初的”、“头几个”讲

We shall go to Beijing by highway on the first of May. 我们将于 5 月 1 日由高速公路去北京。

The first thing for him to do is to repair the video telephone set. 他要做的第一件事是修理这个可视电话机。

I was among the first to arrive. 我属于第一批到达者的行列。

She won first place in the race. 她在比赛中获得第一名。(表示名次时,前面的定冠词常不用。)

a. This is the first time (that) I have heard of it. 这是我第一次听说这件事。(that 引出的从句中必须用现在完成时。若主句中谓语为 was,则从句内用过去完成时。详见下句。)

b. That was the first time they had been alone together. 那是他们第一次单独在一起。

They haven't the first idea what it means. 他们丝毫不知道这是什么意思。(这里 the first… 作“最初的一点点”讲,用于否定句。)

二、副词 "first" 作“先”、“初步”、“开始时”讲

To answer this question, we must first consider a few factors. 为了回答这个问题,我们必须先考虑几个因素。

This air is usually dried by first cooling it to a low temperatures, the water condensing out in the form of ice. 这种空气的干燥一般通过先把它冷却到低温来进行,结果水凝结成冰。

First think and then speak. 先考虑后说话。(注意 first… and then 前后呼应的用法。)

Women and children first. 首先是妇女和儿童。(谦让时用语)

She lived in Beijing first and last about ten years. 她在北京前后一共住了十年左右。

三、和 first 搭配的常用短语

at first 起初,(at) first hand 直接地,第一手地;at first sight (或 glance, appearance)乍一看;first and foremost = first of all = first off (后者主要用于口语中) = (the) first thing (in the morning) = in the first place 首先;for the first time 第一次[常作状语];from the (very) first 从一开始,from first to last 从头到尾; first (或 firstly), secondly, thirdly… 第一,第二,第三…

For 的用法及其短语分类理解

介词 for 的基本意思之一是“为了…”,在与不同的动词连用时可引申为“为了…目的”、“往某目的地”、“供或当作…用”等含义。当它和有关动词搭配时可引申为“找、搜索、探索…”等或多种多样的“渴望…”意思。for… 又可表示持续的时间或距离等。在不同上下文中 for 还有多种用法。只要抓住它几个基本用法,就不难于领会英语本义。

一、for… 表示走向的“目的地”时的动词短语汇总

change for… 换(或倒)车去某地;depart for… 出发去某地;head for… 走向某地;驶往某地;leave for… 动身去某地;make for… 走向某地;pull for…(船等)向某地驶去;sail for… 乘船驶往某地;set off(或 out)for… 出发(或动身)赴某地;move off for…(战士)出发去(某地);set sail for… 驶往某地或扬帆开往某地;start for… 启程赴某地;start out (或 off) for… 出发去某地;take off for… 到(乡下即 the country)去;swim for… 向(某地)游去;strike out for… 使劲地向某地走(或游)去等

二、for 表示“要什么”中的“要”或“要求得到…”的含义,而相搭配的动词表示通过什么动作或方式(以求得到…)

advertise for… 登广告招聘(某人)或寻找(某物);appeal for… 呼吁或恳求得到(援助、支持等);apply for… 申请得到(钱、接见等);bargain for sth. 为得到某物而讨价还价或期待某物;call for… 需要(某人、资金、耐心等)[系由“喊叫要某人、某物”引申过来];change (或 exchange) A for B 用 A 去换来(或交换到)B;come for…(我)来取(邮件等)或来找(某人等);cry for… 哭喊着要(妈妈、玩具等)或迫切需要(帮助等);feel for…(黑暗中)摸着寻找(电灯开关等);fish for…钓或捕(一些鱼等),间接打听(消息等)[钓鱼时,江河中的鱼一般是看不见的,因此有摸索的含义。“间接打听…”和“寻找…”系由上述钓鱼或捕鱼的形象化动作引申而来];go for… 去取(书等),去请(医生等),去(散步即 a walk),支持(民主即 democracy 等);hunt for (或 after)… 寻找(某人、工作、书等)[由“追猎…“转意为”寻找…“];inquire for… 要求见(某人),(在商店)订购(货物等);lay for… 伺机夺取(某城市等),埋伏等待(某人);look for… 寻找(某人、某物)[由”通过看去得到…”引申过来];pay for… 付(钱等)得到(书、房子等);press for 迫切要求(调查、帮助等);push for… 争取(好的工作条件、高收入等);reach for (或 after)… 伸手去取(铅笔、帽子等);seek for (或after)… 试图找到(某人、某物);search for… 探求(真理即 the truth);sell… for… 卖掉(旧车)换(新车);send for… 派人请(医生等),去取(某物),订购(书刊);settle for…(某人出售物品时)定价要(某一钱数),trade A for B 做以 A 换 B 的贸易;try for (或 after)… 力争获得(奖即 the prize 或某工作等);want for… 短缺(钱、食物等)[由“短缺某物而要…”引申过来]等

注:但是 substitute A for B 却作“以 A 代替 B”,跟上面的 change, exchange, sell 和 trade 用法不同。

三、for 也表示“要”,但含有“渴望”等之意时的动词短语举例

expect for a visit to China (或 sb. 等) 期待或渴望访问中国(或某人等);wish for… 渴望(和平等);hope for… 渴望(成功即 success);be dying for … 渴望(水、面包等)[注意要用进行时。若用一般过去时如 He died for his motherland,则作“他为国捐躯”讲];gasp for… 极力想要获得(消息等)[由 gasp 本意“喘着气要空气那样急迫地渴望某物“引申过来,常用进行时];press for… 迫切需要或渴望(解决即 solution 或回音即 an answer);hunger (或 be hungry) for… 如饥似渴地希望得到…,渴望得到(消息、食物、钱等)[使用 be hungry for… 表示心理状态];be eager for… 渴望(成功即 success);long for… 渴望(幸福即 happiness)[由“久久地盼望得到…”引申过来];thirst (或be thirsty) for… 渴望得到(水、书、独立、知识等)[使用 be thirsty for…,则表示渴望的心理状态]等

四、for… 表示“为了……”之意时的动词短语举例

act for sb. 为某人办事或代理某人办事;aim for…(某国等)旨在或力求(20,000 万吨钢等)目标;argue for sb. 为某人某事争辩;arrange (v.) for… 为(我们)安排(一次会议即 a meeting),安排(学生)乘车去俱乐部[the students 后接 to be driven to the club];budget for sth.(或 -ing 短语)为(明年或买新车等)作预算;enter for… 报名参加(考试即the exam);prepare for… 为(考试等)作准备;provide for… 为(将来、某些困难等)作准备[当主语为某法案、某条款等时,则作“规定(最终期限)”讲];read for… 攻读(学位即 a degree);reserve… for sb. 为某人保留(或预订)(机票、房间等);sit for… 参加(英语考试等)[由“为了英语考试而坐着”之意引申过来];speak for sb. 为某人讲话,为某人辩护[但有时作讲话支持或赞成(某提案等)讲];stay for… 留下来(吃饭即 a meal)[由“为了一顿饭而留下”引申过来];struggle for… 为了(世界和平等)而斗争;wait for… 等待(某人或某物)等

五、介词短语 for… 表示时限或距离

She stayed here for two weeks. 她在这里逗留了两周。

The passport is valid for five years. 护照五年有效。

He has studied at Nankai University for four years. 他在南开大学已学了四年。

I haven't seen him for years. 我多年未见到他了。

He runs for two kilometers every morning. 他每天早晨跑两公里路。

六、for… 表示原因或理由时的动词短语汇总

be famous (或 famed, remarkable well-known, distinguished) for…(牛顿)以(他的三个定律即 his three laws)著称,(这个地区即 this area)以(煤和石油)闻名;be grateful for…(我)感谢(您给予考虑即 your consideration);be thankful for…(我们)感谢(他的帮助即 his help),(她)对(她的良好健康即 her good health)而感到欣慰;be sorry for… (我)为(此即 it)抱歉,(我)替(你)难过;feel sorry for…(我)为(给您添不少麻烦即 giving you so much trouble)而感到抱歉,(我们)为(他处境很困难即 him in his great trouble)而感到遗憾;apologize for sth.(或动名词短语)因为某事(如迟到等)而道歉;arrest sb. for sth. 因为某事而逮捕某人;award sb. for sth.(或动名词短语)因为…而奖励某人;blame sb. for sth. 因为某事而责怪某人;charge sb. some money for sth.(或动名词短语)因为某事索取某人若干钱;criticize sb. for sth.(或动名词短语)因为某事而批评某人;excuse(或 forgive)for sth. 原谅(或宽恕)某人(迟到即 being late);praise sb. for sth. 因为某事而表扬某人;punish sb. for sth.(或动名词短语)因为某事(或偷东西等)而惩罚某人:reward sb. for sth.(或动名词短语)因为某事(或修表)等而给某人报酬;thank sb. for sth.(或动名词短语)因为某事(或帮助我们等)而感谢某人等

七、连词 for 引出具有原因意味的并列分句,但它和 because 引出的原因状语从句的用法不甚相同

Steel is widely used in engineering, for its properties are most suitable for construction purposes. 钢广泛地用于工程中,因为钢的性能非常适合于建筑使用。

The oil must be out, for the lamp has gone out. 油准是用完了,因为灯灭了。

He studies hard, for he wants to serve the people better. 他努力学习,因为他想更好地为人民服务。

注:通常认为这里 for 引出并列分句。汉语则仍译为“因为”。但原因含义不如 because, since 和 as, 只是附带地对前面的事实给以说明或解释而已。for 引导的分句只能放在全句后部,有时可单独成一个句子。例如:Even cities and towns that have plenty of water may not have a good water supply. For the water may not be fit to use. 甚至有些水源丰富的城镇可能没有好水供应,因为拥有的水可能不适于使用。

八、for… 表示“对…”之意时的动词短语汇总

allow for… 考虑到或顾及(例外情况,特殊困难等)[系由”对…有所考虑或体谅”引申过来];answer for… 对(某种行为等)负责或对…作出交代;care for… 对(音乐、某人等)喜欢,对(病人等)照料,关心(我们的安全即 our safety);想要(冰淇淋即ice cream);engage for… 对(某人要求等)允诺或保证;estimate for… 对(某种修理等)估计费用;fear for… 对(或为)某人某事担忧;go for sb.(这些书)对某人适用[注意上下文. 若为 I go for a doctor 则为“我去请医生”];have a fondness for… 对某人钟爱或宠爱,爱(花等);have a love for sb. 对某人(如母亲)有爱心;have a liking for sth. 对… 有嗜好;have an inclination for sth. 对… 有爱好;have respect for sb. 对某人尊敬;have a talent(或a gift) for… 对…有天才;feel sympathy for sb. 对某人同情;be responsible for…(我们)对(你们的安全即 your safety)负责,(她)负责(这项研究),(过高的温度)是(事故即 the accident)的原因;want for… 缺… [系由“对(如煤、粮等)很需要”引申过来]等

九、介词 for 短语在句首单独出现多半作“就…而论”或“…来说”讲

(除了单纯用 for 构成的固定介词短语以外)

For scenery, there is no place like Guilin in China. 就景色而论,中国桂林首屈一指。

For my part, I don't agree with you on this point. 就我来讲,在这点上我不同意你的看法。

For one thing, she studies hard. 举一例,她学习努力。(由“就一件事来说”引申过来。)

十、单纯用介词 for 的常用短语举例

for his experience (或 efforts 等) 尽管他有经验(或努力等);For all that, we still believe her. 尽管如此,我们仍然相信她的话;for example (或 for instance) 例如[作插入语用];for fear of + 名词或 for fear that + 从句惟恐…,担心…;for sure = for certain 肯定地;for ever = forever 永远;for all that 尽管如此;for good (and all) 长期地,永远地;for his (own) good为他自己好;for once 总算有一次,生平第一次;for lease (或 rent, sale) 供租借(或租用、出售);for the purpose + -ing 为了(去北京即 going to Beijing);for short 简称;for the first time 第一次;for the best 往好的变;for the sake of… 为了(友谊即 the friendship);word for word 逐字逐句地;point few point 逐条逐点地等

十一、for 表示“赞成、支持或同情”之意时的动词短语汇总

ache for sb. 对某人表示同情(有“疼某人”之意);argue (或 speak) for sb. 为某人争辩(或说好话)[表示支持某人];declare for sth. 声明赞成…(如和平、中立等);feel (pity) for sb. 对某人表示同情;stand for… 提倡或主张(公平交易即 fair trading);vote for… 投票赞成(某人或某建议)be for… 赞成…(如计划等)(但当主语为信件、书等而 for 后的词为某人时,则句义变为“这信件、书等是给某人的”)等

十二、for… 含有“当作”、“认作”、“代表”、“代替”之意时的动词短语举例

go for…(这个房间等)可当作(会议室等);mistake… for… 把…错当成……;pass for…(某些人)被认为是(学者即scholars),(这样的一种料子即 such a material)被认为是(丝绸即 silk);serve for… 当作(燃料、床等)用;stand for… 代表(政府、温度等);take… for… 把(某人或某物)错当作(日本人或辞典等);take… for granted 把(某人或某事)认(作)为理所当然的等

注:有时 do for… 中的 for 当“作为”讲。例如:This box may do for table. 这个箱子可以权且当一张桌子用。

十三、用介词 for 引出后面不定式或其短语的逻辑主体,参阅第 53 节第三项。

Forth 的搭配用法

副词 forth 表示“往外”、“外出、离家”和“向前”。与 out 词义接近,远不如 out 用得那么广泛。forth 在其常用动词短语中多数含有“向外”、“由隐而显”之意,较多用于书面语。

一、forth 跟有关动询连用时表示“往外”、“由隐而显”时的动词短语举例

blossom forth (或 out).(玫瑰即 roses)开花;

bring forth…(他)提出(问题、证据即 evidence),(这棵树)结出(苹果即 apples),(她)生(孩子);

break forth(欢呼声即 cheers)顿时雷动,(他的怒火即 his anger)突然爆发;

call forth (或 out)…(他的讲话即 his speech)引起(热烈的讨论即 a heated discussion);

give forth (或 out)…(旧的工厂)冒出(黑烟即 black smoke);

be given forth (或 out)(这个报告即 the report)已经发表[用现在完成时被动态];

put forth (或 out)…(她)伸出(手),(树)长出(新的叶子即 new leaves),(他)提出(一个计划)[也可用 put forward a plan 代替],出版(一本书)[put forth 另外用法见下面第二项];

send forth… 寄发(书、信),长出(新的叶子),发出(光、热、声音),出版发行(书等),发布(命令即 a command);

set forth (或 out, forward)…(他)提出(新的理论即 a new theory);

shoot forth(或 out)(叶子)茁壮抽出,向外射击等

二、forth 跟有关动词搭配表示“外出、离家”时的动词短语举例

come (或 issue) forth from…(领导人即 the leaders)从(城堡即 the castle)出来;

come forth with a new idea(他)提出一个新的想法;

go forth〈书面语〉(军队)出发去打仗[后加 to battle],(学生)启程旅行[后加 on his journey],(命令即 a command)被发布[用过去一般时。也可用 be sent forth 代替];

be cast forth (或 out)(某人)被赶出门或被发配边疆;

launch forth (或 out)(他们)出航或出海,(她)启航去日本旅行[后加 on a journey to Japan];

put forth (或 out)(他)启程航海[后加 to sea 或 on a voyage],(这条船)出航(横渡大洋即 to cross the ocean);

set forth(他)出发去上海[后加 for Shanghai]等

三、forth 作“向前”讲时的其它常用短语

pace (或 go) back and forth 来回踱步(或走动);

run (或 come) forth 向前跑(或来);

learn French, English, chemistry and so forth (或 and so on) 学习法语、英语、化学等;

hurry forth 匆匆前来等

Forward(s) 的搭配用法

一、副词 forward(s) 作“向前”、“往前”讲,可单独使用,但较常用于固定短语。可按上述两个含义理解和记忆下列短语

bring forward… 提出(问题等)[可用 advance… put forward…, set forth…. put forth… 代替];

bring forward… to… 把(会议、钟表等)提前或拨快到(某日期或某时刻),把(如某笔款子等)转入(第 100 页等);

call forward sb. 邀请或吩咐某人站出来[如目的是让某人领奖品等];

carry forward… 发扬或推进(优良的传统即 the good traditions 等);

carry forward… to… 把(会议)提前到(某日期等)或将(某笔款子)转到(第 100 页);

come forward(志愿者即 volunteers)站出来,(某问题等)自然出现或被提出讨论;

get forward(战士等)前进;

get sth. forward to sb. 把(某物)送给某人;

go forward(军队等)向前挺进,(某人)取得进步,(工作等)有进展,(建议、论点等)被提出;

hasten forward 急忙前去;hurry forward (或 on, along) 匆忙前去;

lean forward(我)身子向前靠[如目的为了握手或倾听某人讲话];

look forward to + 名词或动名词盼望(某事或见到某人等);

move forward(谈判等)有进展;

press forward 奋力前进[其反义短语为 draw back倒退];

push (vi., vt. ) forward 向前推进,推动(社会等)前进;

put forward… 提出(理论或问题等),推举(某人等),把(照片、护照等)拿给某人看[后加 to sb. ];

run forward 往前奔跑;

set (vi., vt.) forward(他们)出发(我)提出(建议、问题等),把(钟表)拨快(一小时)等

二、形容词 forward 作“向前的”、“前面的”、“早到”、“早成熟”、“进展快”、“热切的”、“愿意”、“随便”、“自以为是’’等含义。前七个词义中还领会到 forward 的本义“积极向前”,而最后两个词义则可理解为它的贬义,变为“自以为是”和“随便”。但在具体短语中理解时,必须依靠上下文选择词义

a forward motion 一个向前的运动;

the forward path 前面的小路;

the forward spring 早到的春天;

the forward wheat 早熟的麦子;

be well forward with one’s work(某人)工作进展快;

be always forward (=be ready) to help others 总是乐意(或热心)帮助他人;

a very forward man 一个很随便的(或自以为是的)男人等

三、及物动词 forward 作“促进(某个计划等)、促使(植物等)生长、寄发…邮件、货物等或(从北京)转来(信件等)[后接 from Beijing]”讲。在这里仍可体会到含有 forward 的本义

From 的搭配用法及其短语分类理解

一、用 "from…" 或 "from… to (或 till)…" 表示时间的用法举例

from March 从三月起;

from now on (或 onward(s)) 从今以后;

from long ago 从很久以前开始;

from the very beginning (或 start) 从一开始;

from before the war 从战前起;

from when I began to learn English 从我开始学英语起;

from beginning to end 或 from start to finish 自始至终;

from morning till (或 to) night 从早到晚;

from 1992 through 1999 从 1992 年到 1999 年底;

from Monday through Friday 从星期一到星期五[强调包括星期五];

from day (或 year) to day (或 year) 一天(或年)一天(或年)地[也可用 from one day (或 year) to another, day (或 year) by day (或 year), day (或 year) after day (或 year) 来代替];

have from two to four English classes a day 每天上两到四节英语课等

二、from 短语表示地点时与动词搭配用例

fall from… (杯子即 the cup) 从(桌子)上掉下;

flow from…(泪水即 the tears)从(他眼即 his eyes)流出,(财富即 wealth)来自(高科技即 high technologies);

come from…(我)是(北京)人[用现在一般时],(她)从(北京)来[用过去一般时],(他们)来自(世界各地即 all over 或 around the world)[用过去一般时],(她)来自(郊外即 out of town)[同上];

go from…(火车)从(这里即 here 或这个车站即 this railway station)出发,(小孩)从(门背后即 behind the door)走出;

run from across the road 从马路对面跑过来;

be across from our supermarket(这家公司即 the firm)位于超市对面;

take oil from below the surface of the earth 从地球表层下方采油;

open the door from within 从里面将门打开;

The tooth often decays from without 牙齿常是从外面蛀坏的。

travel from… to… 从(天津)旅行到(上海)等

注:从上述例子中可看出,介词 from 后面还可和其它介词短语或副词连用。

三、注意 from head to foot(从头到脚),from door to door 或 from one door to another(挨门挨户)之类的短语用法

visit old people from house to house (或 from one house to another)(我们)挨家挨户访问老人;

be going from good to better(投资环境即 the investment environment)越来越好;

pass (或 hand) down this custom from generation to generation 将这个习俗一代一代地传下去;

teach English from place to place (他)在各地教英语;

vary from country to country (天气即 the weather) 随不同国家而异;

change… from one state to another 使(水)从一种状态变为另一种状态等

四、from 短语表示“离…多远”时的用法举例

He is far away from Shanghai. 他远离上海(可省略 away);

be 10 kilometers from…(学校)离(这里即 here)十公里;

be 8 minutes’ walk (或 drive) from…(学校)离(高速公路即 the express way)是步行(或开车)8 分钟的距离;

be far from + 形容词或 -ing 短语(这个想法即 this idea)远远不是(正确的即 correct),(他)根本不是(那样做的即 doing like that);

be distant from…(太阳)离(地球)很远;

keep apart from…(她)离群[后加 the group],(他)不参与(那些活动即 those activities)等

注 1:apart (或 aside) from… 还可作“除了…以外”讲。例如:

1) Apart (或 Aside) from the ball pen, my mother gave me an electronic dictionary. 除了这支圆珠笔以外,母亲还给了我一个电子辞典。(在肯定句内还可用 besides 或 in addition to 代替 apart from。)

2) There is nothing apart (或 aside) from a beeper on the desk. 书桌上除了一个寻呼机以外,其它什么都没有。(在这个否定句内还可用 besides, except, but 来代替 apart from。)

注 2:常用“表示距离的词语 + 介词 off…”表示离道路、海岸、港口、火车站有多远。例如:

1) The cargo ship lies one kilometer off the shore. 这条货船停泊在离海岸 1 公里处。

2) The computer center is two blocks off our school. 计算机中心离我校两个街区。

五、from 与有关动词搭配,表示“来源”时的用法举例

be from…(他)出身(工人家庭即 a worker’s family),(这些礼物即 these gifts)来自(我的儿女);

expect a great progress from sb. 期望某人有很大进步;

visit some professors from Europe 访问来自欧洲的几位教授;

borrow… from… 从(某人或图书馆)借来(书等);

get (或 obtain.) some information from sb. 从某人那里得到一些信息;

graduate from… 毕业于(上海大学);

hear from sb. 收到某人的信等;

be formed from…(煤)由(植物即 plants)形成;

be made from…(啤酒即 beer)由(大米即 rice 等)制成[但桌子由木制成、只能用“be made of…”结构,因桌子和木之间无实质性的变化,即两者仍是木质的]等

六、from 与有关动词搭配,表示原因时的用法举例

arise from…(经济快速发展即 the rapid development of economy)由(高科技)引起,(困难)由(洪水即 the flood)造成;

die from… 因(心脏病发作即 the heart attack)而去世;

fall ill from… 由于(流感即flu)卧床不起;

feel tired from working day and night 由于日夜工作而感到疲劳;

act from necessity 出于需要而采取行动;

result from…(成功即 the success)由(正确的政策即 the correct policy)产生的;

turn off the microwave oven from safety(他)出于安全关闭了微波炉[用过去一般时]等

七、from 短语表示“从…中来看或判断、根据…”时的用法举例

from my view point 根据我的观点;

from his appearance 从他的外表来看;

from her look 根据她的脸色来看;

from what they have heard 根据他们收听到的内容来看;

judge from (或 by) his talk 根据他的讲话来判断;

sing the song from memory 凭记忆演唱这支歌;

operate a machine from experience(他)凭经验操作一台机器等

八、from… 跟有关动词或形容词搭配,表示“和…不同”时的用法举例

differ from…(这幢楼)与(那幢楼即 that one)不同;

be different from…(计算机)不同于(游戏机即 a video game machine);

know the right from the wrong 明辨是非;

tell… from…(这小女孩)能识别(黑色)和(白色);

distinguish… from… 区别或辨别(金即 gold)和(铜即 copper)等

九、from 和有关动词搭配,表示“隔开、分开、离开”时的用法举例

break from…(他)戒(烟即 smoking 或酒即 drinking);

depart from…(他的讲话即 his talk)离开(主题即 the subject),(他)离开(上海),(某人)去世[后接 life];

deviate from…(某人或他的报告即 his report)偏离(主题);

be free from…(备件即 the spare parts)无(缺陷即 defects),(他)无(危险即 dangers)[注意 be free of… 仅用于免(税即 duty)或(免费即 charge 或 cost)等;

be absent from here(他)不在这里或缺席[用这个 from… 才体现不在这里];

have not any secret from sb.(我)没有任何秘密隐瞒某人;

get (v.) away from…(使)离开或摆脱(家、工作等),(使)戒(酒即 liquor);

take… away from…(他)拿走某人的(枪即 a gun)[from 后加 sb.],(她)从她的住房将(汽车)开走[from 后加 her house];

save… from… 从(火)中救出(小孩),使(工作)免遭(失败即 failure);

part from…(小孩)辍学[后 school],离开(某人);

separate… from… 使(水)和(油)分开;

keep (v.) from…(使)不靠近(火炉即 the fire),勿进入(草地即 the glass),不沾(酒等)对(某人)隐瞒(这件事),prevent, stop, prohibit + sb. 或 sth. from… 阻止、制止或禁止某人(吸烟即 smoking),阻止(或制止、禁止)某事(发生即 taking place)等

注:不要将 from 理解为“分开或隔开”并机械地逐字翻译。否则会错译为“阻止、制止或禁止某人和吸烟分开”。应将功能性介词 from 理解为“分开”、“隔开”,而英语动词理解为行为方式,于是可正确地理解为“通过阻止、制止或禁止手段或方式使某人与吸烟分开”。这就是按英语思维形象化地理解英语本意的一些典型例子。

Hardly 和 Scarcely 的用法及注意点

一、副词 hardly 和 scarcely 作“几乎不”讲,常用以构成否定式,它们可以否定主语、谓语或宾语等

We could hardly (或 scarcely) understand it. 我们几乎不可能了解这件事。

I hardly (或 scarcely) saw anything. 我几乎什么也没看见。

So it’s scarcely (或 hardly) worth looking for her around here. 因此在这里附近寻找她几乎是不值得的。

There was scarcely (或 hardly) anybody (或 any person, a person) on the street.(当时)街上几乎没有一个人。(scarcely 或 hardly 否定后面的名词时,常在该名词前加用 any 或 a。)

It hardly (或 scarcely) snows ever in Kunming. 昆明几乎从来不下雪。(句中 hardly ever 相当于 almost never。)

注:当有 hardly 或 scarcely 构成否定句时,一般不要再用 not, never, no 等否定词。但可插入介词短语 without…,只要句义符合逻辑即可。

二、“hardly (或 scarcely)… when (或 before)…”作“刚……就……”讲。注意 hardly 和 scarcely 位于句首时,主、谓语颠倒。参阅第 148 节、一

Hardly had I reached the station when the train started. 我刚到车站,火车就开了。(有时还可用 before 代替 when, 但不如 when 广泛使用。)

Scarcely had he opened the door when a gust of wind blew the candle out. 他刚开门,一阵风就把蜡烛吹灭了。

本句型结构仅用于描述已发生的事。使用时必须注意下列三点:

(1) scarcely 或 hardly 所在的主句内,谓语动作差一点发生(但毕竟未发生)是在 when 从句内的谓语动作之前,因此主句用过去完成时,从句用过去一般时。(本句型只能用于叙述过去的事)

(2) 若否定词 hardly 或 scarcely 位于句首,则后面主语和助动词词序要颠倒。

(3) 不能用 than 代替句中的 when, 若非要用 than, 则必须改用 "no sooner… than…" 句型。下列几种表示式的句义相同:

a. He had scarcely (或 hardly) seen the letter when (或 before) he started back home. 他一见到信就动身回家了。(只能用于叙述过去的事。用 when 比 before 好些。)

b. Scarcely (或 Hardly) had he seen the letter when he started back home.(译文和用法同上)

c. He had no sooner seen the letter than he started back home.(同上。)

d. No sooner had he seen the letter than he started back home.(同上。)

e. He started back home as soon as he saw (或 had seen) the letter. (=As soon as he saw the letter, he started back home.)(译文同上。)

注:用 as soon as… 时,主句和从句的时态通常一致。若描述将来发生的事,则 as soon as 引出的时间状语从句要用现在时代替将来时。叙述过去的事,有时也可见到 as soon as 后面从句中用过去完成时。

Have (或 Has) 的用法

一、have 作“有”讲

I have a few Chinese video compact discs (或 VCDs). 我有几张中国光盘。

A solid has both definite size and shape. 固体既有一定的大小,又有一定的形状。

Heavy nuclei, having more energy levels than light nuclei, are more likely to effect capture of a particle. 重核比轻核有较多的能级,所以它更能俘获粒子。(现在分词 having 短语作原因状语,但也可理解为非限制性定语。)

It may be had for the asking. 索取时可免费奉送。(句中 had 用于被动态。)

Nothing worth having can be had without labour. 不劳动只能是什么都不该有。(动名词 having 作形容词 worth 的宾语。had 用于被动态。)

二、“have. (或 had) + 过去分词”构成现在(或过去)完成时,而“will (或 shall) + have + 过去分词”构成将来完成时。(见第 134 节 八、九)

He has been to Microsoft. 他去过微软公司。(试比较:She went to Microsoft. 她[当时]去微软公司了。)(现在完成时)

How many times have you been to Internet Mall? 你去过因特网大商城多少次?(现在完成时)

I have stayed in the cloning technology laboratory for 3 days. 我在克隆技术实验室已呆了三天。(现在完成时)

Since then we have kept in contact with each other for quite a long time. 从那时以来,我们保持互相联系已有相当长的时间了。(现在完成时主动态)

Work can produce heat; heat can do work. Of these facts you have had many examples. 功能够产生热;热能够作功。你已有这些事实的许多例子。(现在完成时主动态,had 系 have “有” 的过去分词)

The circuit has been completed. 电路已经接通了。(现在完成时被动态)

They said that they had worked out their work plan. 他们说,他们已经制订了工作计划。(过去完成时主动态)

He said that your pager had been repaired. 他说你的传呼机已经修理好了。(过去完成时被动态)

Yet you will have done no work by merely exerting force. 仅仅施加力,你仍将是尚未作功。(将来完成时主动态)

三、“have, had 或 shall (will) + have been + -ing”构成现在、过去、将来这三种完成进行时主动态。(参阅第 134 节十一、十二、十三)

四、“have + 带 to 的不定式”,作“只得……”、“只好……”或“要……”讲

We have to change our method of operation. 我们得改变我们的操作方法。

There was something wrong with the instrument, they had to repeat their experiment once again. 仪器出了毛病,他们只好再次重做实验。

To produce strong X-rays, the tube has to be made a very good vacuum. 要产生强烈的X射线,管子必须制成高度真空。(划线处为主语补语。)

五、“have + 有动作意义的名词”作“做一下某动作”或“进行某动作”讲

Let us have a look. 让我们看一看。

We want to have a try. 我们想试一试。

We are having a meeting. 我们正在开会。

六、“have + 宾语 + 不带 to 的不定式”表示“使(叫)……做……”之意

We will have you know that we have made the machine work at full speed. 我们将要使你知道,我们已使这台机器全速运转了。(划线处为主句中的宾语补语。)

We can't have the motor run idle. 我们不能让马达空转。(同上)

注意使用本句型结构时,有时表示主语人的意志,有时表示与主语人的意志无关。例如:

(1) I will have him go with me. 我要他同我一起走。(表示主语的意志)

(2) I shall have some one come here. 将有人来这里。(表示与主语的意志无关,仅是反映客观上将发生的情况而已。)

(3) They had a fire break out in the neighbourhood yesterday. 他们附近昨天发生火灾。(表示与主语的意志无关,仅是反映客观上己发生的事实而已。切不可按照“使”、“让”来译,将“他们”理解为“纵火犯”。)

七、“have + 宾语 + 过去分词(作宾语补语,不作后置定语)”表示“让……受到……”、“让人把……弄……”、“使得……”的意思

They have just had the instrument adjusted. 他们刚(请人)把这个仪器调整好。

We must have the steel pipe shortened. 我们必须把这根钢管截短。

You should have the radio repaired. 你应该(请人)把无线电修好。

Electric heaters have their electric energy transformed into heat. 电热器使其电能转变为热能。

He had his experiment report all written out neatly. 他把实验报告写得清清楚楚。

注意使用本句型结构时,有时表示主语的意志,有时与主语的意志无关。例如:

(1) I had my watch mended. 我请人把我的表修好了。(表示主语的意志)

(2) I had my minicamera broken. 我把小型照相机弄坏了。(表示与主语意志无关。不要理解为“我有意让小型照相机摔坏”之意。)

在少数情况下,本句型结构中的过去分词可能作前面宾语的后置定语。这时必须根据上下文进行逻辑判别。例如:

He has only one finger left. 他只剩下一个指头。(定语)

八、“have + 宾语 + 形容词、副词或 -ing(作宾语补语用)”表示“听任……”、“保持……”的意思

It is too hot, you must have all the windows open. 天气太热,你们得让所有窗户都开着。

It is therefore better to have a cutting tool tough and not too hard. 因此最好使刀具有韧性,不太硬。

We have him trying an experiment. 我们让他在试作一个实验。

We can't have them wasting the material in this way. 我们不能允许他们这样浪费那种材料。

Let us have Dr. Fang over. 让我们请方博士过来吧。

He had a tooth out. 他拔了一个牙。

但注意本句型结构中的 -ing(现在分词) 有时不作宾语,而作后置定语。例如:

Last year we had a dry spell lasting 130 days. 去年我们遇上干旱期持续130天。

九、“have it that + …”作“表明”、“主张”、“说”、“声称”等讲

The newspaper has it that our five-year plan was overfulfilled. 报纸上说我们的五年计划超额完成了。

He will have it that his idea will come true。他会声称他的想法会实现的。

十、“had + better + 不带 to 的不定式”表示“最好……”之意

You had better improve the equipment with the senior engineers. 你们最好是跟这些高工一起改进这个设备。

We had better go over the circuit once more. 我们最好把线路再检查一遍。

注意这里的 had 不是过去时。这个句型,不论用于过去时、现在时或将来时,都是以 had 形式(虚拟语气)出现。

He had better not remain here any longer. 他最好不要在此久留。

十一、“have been + 不定式”表示刚完成的动作

I have been to see a doctor. 我刚才去看医生了。(注意说这句话时正是我刚从医生那儿回来了。)

但要注意逻辑判别。在下句中不定式短语是表语:

Our aim has been to work out a successful method of synthesis of this compound. 搞出这种化合物的成功的合成法已是我们的目标。

十二、have got 相当于 have 及 have got to 相当于 have to 的用法

We have got (= have) many different electronic dictionaries. 我们有许多各种各样的电子辞典。

You have got (= have) to stop it. 你必须加以制止。

十三、注意 having 的用法

A greater current will overheat and seriously damage the generator having the smaller current capacity. 电流大,就能使载流量较小的发电机过热并受到严重损坏。(后置定语)

Besides having inertia all material objects have the ability to attract all other objects. 一切物体除了有惯性以外,还具有吸引所有其它物体的性能。(介词宾语)

The moon having no atmosphere, there can be no wind. 由于月亮没有大气层,所以就没有风。(独立分词结构)

Dr. Ouyang(’s) having left made the situation here hard. 欧阳博士走后,这里处境就困难了。(复合结构或动名词短语作主语。)

Not having enough time, I could not gain access to Yahoo. 由于没有足够的时间,我未能再次访问雅虎(网站)。(现在分词短语作原因状语。)

Having failed several times, he needs some encouragement. 失败了几次以后,他就需要得到一些鼓励。(现在分词短语完成式作时间状语。)

Having had no answer, he wrote again. 由于无回音,他又写了一封信.(现在分词短语完成式作原因状语。)

A body at rest cannot be moved without having an enough force acting on it. 如果没有一个足够大的力作用于静止的物体上,那末该物体是不会(被)移动的。(动名词短语作介词宾语,其中包含宾语和宾语补语。)

How, How many, How much, How long, How far,How fast, How often 等用法

一、构成特殊疑问句(注意主、谓语颠倒现象)

How is mercury different from silver? 水银和银有何不同?

How long have you worked at the airport? 你在机场工作多久了?

How many pandas are there in China? 在中国有多少熊猫?

How much of China's surface is covered with green plants? 中国表面(积)有多大比例为绿色植物所覆盖?

How much (money) should I pay for this pair of sun glasses? 这副太阳镜我该付多少(钱)?

注:how many 用于可数名词,而 how much 用于不可数名词。

How far is the Internet information center away from here? 因特网信息中心离这里有多远?

How fast is he driving the car? 现在他开车的速度有多快?

How often do you have access to the web site? 你隔多久访问这个(万维)网站?

How long will it take to reach the supermarket? 到达超市要花多长时间?

How high (或 tall) is your apartment building? 你们的公寓楼有多高?

二、构成主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句,但从句内主、谓语词序不颠倒

It is clearly known how they learn English. 他们如何学英语是清楚知道的。(主语从句,it 是形式主语)

The question is how much one cubic meter of air weighs under normal conditions. 问题是在标准情况下,一立方米空气重多少。(表语从句,试与上面第 5 句比较主、谓语词序。)

I didn't know how many English words you had learned for two years. 当时我不知你们两年学了多少英语单词。(宾语从句)

He answered the question how volume is affected by temperature. 他回答了温度如何影响体积这个问题。(the question 的同位语从句)

Can you answer us the question of how fast the molecules move? 你能回答我们分子运动有多快的问题吗?(介词 of 的宾语从句)

三、疑问词与动词不定式构成短语常顶一个名词

I do not know how to operate this new-type portable computer? 我不知如何操作这种新型手提式计算机?(作宾语)

How many experiments to perform a day is still a question. 一天做多少项实验还是一个问题。(作主语)

What do you know about how to send an-email? 关于如何寄发电子邮件,你知道什么呢?(常顶一个名词作介词 about 的宾语。)

If 的用法

一、连词 if 用于条件和假设句中(详见第 143 节)

a. If you study hard, you will pass the exam. 如果你努力学习,那么你就能通过这次考试。(真实条件)

b. If the boy should (或 were to) study hard, he would pass the exam. 假如这男孩果真努力学习,那么他就会通过这次考试。(句子含有“将来不大可能实现”的意味。)

I shall not go out if you come tomorrow. 如果你明天来,那我就不出去了。(这是真实条件。注意条件状语从句不用将来时态,要用现在时态来代替。在本情况下,主要靠主句谓语将来时态来判别。)

If I were not busy now, I should (或 would) go to the meeting. 要是我现在不忙,我就去开会了。(对现在事实相反的假设,谓语都用虚拟语气。也可用情态动词 could, might 代替 should, would 只是含义不同。)

If he had not been busy yesterday, he would have come to the trade fairs. 假如他昨天不忙,他早就来贸易展销会了。(对过去事实相反的假设,谓语都用虚拟语气。注意和上句表示形式不同。)

二、连词 if 只有在引出宾语从句时才作“是否”讲,句末不能加 or, not 之类的词

He asked us if English is our major subject. 他问了我们英语是不是我们的主要课程。(可用 whether 代替 if。)

I don't know if the figures are accurate. 我不知数字是否精确。(同上)

注:if 和 whether 引导宾语从句时稍有差别。参阅第 122 节、四。

三、用以表示与事实相反的愿望

If he were in Tianjin now! 要是此刻他在天津多好啊!

If I could only see them once more! 但愿我能再次见到他们就好了!

If only he had known about it! 他当时知道这件事就好了!(若改为 If only he knew about it, 则变为:他此刻知道就好了→可惜他此刻并不知道。)

If only she arrives in time! 她若能及时到达就好了!(抱有一点希望)

四、if 用于条件状语从句,其中有省略成分。(详见第 145 节、二)

That is important, if (it is) true. 如果属实,那很重要。

If (it is) not well managed. irrigation can be harmful. 如果管理不善,灌溉还可能有害处。

If (it is) necessary we shall put the video conference off. 如果需要的话,我们将延期开电视会议.

五、if any, if ever 和 if anything 的用法

if any 和 if ever 表示“果真有”、“即使有”,相当于 if there is any at all 而 if anything 相当于 if there is anything (或 any difference), 含有“如果有些什么”、"如果稍有区别的话"的意思。若主句有 few, little, seldom, rarely 等否定词,则上述从句为让步状语从句,否则一般表示条件状语从句。例如:

I think that there is little, if any, hope. 我认为希望很小。(让步状语从句。没按原文结构翻译。)

It occurs seldom, if ever. 即使有其事,也并不多。(让步状语从句)

True greatness has little, if anything, todo with rank or power. 真正的伟大几乎与地位或权力无关。(让步状语从句)

There are few, if any, English books. 几乎没有什么英语书。(让步状语从句。意指“英语书即使有,也是很少”。)

Defects in the machine parts, if any, can be detected by this new-type instrument. 机器零件内的缺陷,如果有的话,可用这种新型仪器检测。(条件状语从句)

The question now is what energy, if anything, is required to bring about such a rotation. 现在问题是,如果需要一种能量,究竟要哪种能量来产生这样的一种转动。(条件状语从句)

六、if 用于 even if 和 as if 中,分别引出让步状语从句和行为方式状语从句,参阅第 106节、五 和 15 节、四-Ⅴ-D

In 和 Into 的用法及其短语分类理解

一、介词 in 短语的用法

I. in 用于地点、空间、某范围、方位时,介词短语或其动词短语汇总:

in the street 在街上[但美语用 on the street];

in here 在这里[here 作名词用];

in the middle of the bedroom 在卧室中间;

walk in the rain 在雨中行走

find a hole in the cap(他)发现帽子上有个洞等

注 1:注意下列例子中 in, on 或 at 的用法:例如:

There is a bird in the tree. 树上有一只鸟。(不能用 on, 因为英语将“树”作为一个整体。)

The mirror hung in the wall. 这面镜子嵌在墙内挂着。(若用 on 代替 in, 则变为“……挂在墙上”。)

a. Canada is on the north of the United states. 加拿大与美国北部接壤。

b. Shanghai is in the east of China. 上海位于中国东部。

a. stand in the corner of the room. 站在房间角落处

b. sit on the corner of the desk. 坐在书桌角上

c. live at the corner of the street. 住在这条街拐弯处

注 2:at 表示的地点侧重于表示一个点(见上例)。详见第 16 节。

注 3:某些动词短语中的 in sb.,如果侧重于表示某人的气质、人品,常可理解为“在某人身上”。例如:

a. He has something of a hero in him. 他具有英雄气概。

b. You have it in you to be a musician. 你具有当音乐家的气质。

c. She has some money on her. 她身上有点钱。(不能用 in 代替 on,但却可用 with 或 about 代替。)

d. Have another cup of milk on me. 再来一杯牛奶,由我支付。(不能用 in 代替 on。)

I have found a true friend in you. 我已认为你是一个真正的朋友。

We lost a great scientist in Qian San-qiang. 我们失去了一位伟大的科学家。(指钱三强去世)

注 4:涉及人体表面时,多半都用介词 on,若打击涉及人体表面较软或较空的部分时,多半要用 in。例如:

She kissed her daughter on both cheeks. 她吻了她女儿的脸颊。

You hit him in the mouth (或 eye, stomach 等)。你打了他的嘴巴(或眼睛、肚子等)。(若“打耳朵、脖子、肩膀”等,则要用 on。)

注5:涉及痛苦和创伤所在的部位,通常用介词 in。例如:

I felt a pain in my nose. 我感到鼻子疼痛。

He was wounded in the right hand. 他右手受伤了。

II. 介词 in 表示“在……中”,“在……方面”时与动词搭配用法举例

be interested in… 对(英语、音乐等)感兴趣;

increase (或 rise) in…(某物体)在(体积、温度等)方面增加(或上升)[常译:某物体体积或温度增加或上升];

deal in… 经营(茶叶等);

fail in the exam(他)考试不及格;

be late in arriving(她)来迟;

be wrong in theory(某人、某事)在理论上是错的;

differ in the statements(他们)说法不同;

invest money in… 投资于(石油等);

find… in the book(她)在这本书中找到或发现(某物);

be… in volume (或 weight)(某物)体积(1 立方米),(某物)重量(50 公斤);

make progress in many respects (或 ways) 在许多方面取得进步;

Have you anything in the way of fruit drink? 你们有否属于果子露方面的饮料?

注:注意有些固定的短语动词有时介词 in 等省略。参阅第 145 节、二十。

III. 介词 in 短语表示时间用法举例

A. 表示“在某一段时间”

in the evening (或 afternoon) 在傍晚(或下午)[若 in 后面出现前置或后置定语则 in 常改用 on];

in (the) May 在五月份;

in (the) winter 在冬天;

in 2001 在 2001 年;

in 2020’s 21 世纪 20 年代;

in the past (或 last) ten years 在过去的十年;

in the not far distant future 在不久的将来等

注:和 into 表示时间的用法进行比较。这时 into 作“直到…时间”或“进入…(时间)”讲,有时前面可加 late, far 或 well 以加重时间晚、长的语气。例如:

Here viewed the lessons late (或 far) into the night. 他复习功课到深夜。

The experiments often continued into the night. 实验常持续到夜晚。

I am well into eighties. 我已经八十多岁了。

He worked on, writing into the early morning. 他继续工作,一直写到天亮。

B. 表示“用若干时间”

He finished the job in two hours. 他用两小时做完这项工作。

The policemen haven't had a fast sleep in a week. 警察一周内没有睡过一次好觉。

C. 表示“隔若干时间以后”这时一般用于表示将来时的句子中,而且动词多数为终止性动词(如 return, come 等)

He will turn back in four days (或 in four days’ time). 他四天以后返回。

I am going abroad in two weeks. 我准备两周以后出国。

The class is in a few minutes. 几分钟后就上课。

Pleases end the book to her in no time. 请立即把书寄给她。[若用 in time 或 on time, 则作“按时”或“准时”讲。]

注:in 和 within 表示时间方面的差别(参阅第 130、四 和 139 节、三-Ⅲ)。

Ⅳ.介词 in 短语表示衣着(包括颜色)、特征、性质、情绪、心境、从事的职业等(常作表语或后置定语)

She is in red (或 in a red overcoat). 她身穿红衣(或一件红大衣)。

We found a policeman in plain clothes and black shoes. 我们发现一个穿便衣和黑鞋的警察。

The documents were in English. 这些文件是用英文写的。

Her furniture is in the old style. 她的家俱是旧款式的。

They are in the wrong (或 in the right). 他们是错误的(或对的)。

He is in the money. 他发财(或有钱)。

Her secret is in the open. 她的秘密泄露了。

She is quite in earnest. 她是很认真的。

He is in his sixties. 他六十多岁了。

He is in good spirits. 他情绪良好。

She remains in pain. 她依然苦恼。

The enemy stays in despair. 敌人仍处于绝望之中。

He is in a bad temper. 他心情不好。

I am in insurance (或 in research). 我从事保险业(或科研)。

V. 介词 in 短语表示状态时与动词搭配的用法

be in order (计算机),状态正常;

stay in a good condition(某人或汽车),仍处良好的状况;

be in dark about sth.(我)对某事一无所知;

be kept in repair(道路)养护良好;

be in good health(他)身体健康;

be in ruin(楼房等)倒塌;

stay in bed 仍卧床不起,be in difficulty (或 danger)(他)处境困难(或危险);

be in hospital(她)住院;

be in active service(他)在服役或在职等

Ⅵ. 介词 in 短语表示方式状语时与动词的搭配用法

Look at sb. in surprise 惊讶地看某人;

Visit us in turn 逐个访问我们;

Design a theatre in Chinese style 按中国风格设计剧院;

Attend the meeting in sb.’s name(我)以某人名义参加会议;

Discuss… in groups(他们)分组讨论(这个问题等);

Write the numbers in figures 用数字写出数目;

Go off in a hurry 匆匆离去;

Make paper in large amounts 大量造纸;

Speak in a loud voice 大声讲话;

Hold the meeting in secret(或 in public)秘密地(或公开地)举行会议;

Stand in the line (或 queue) 排队站着;

Build rockets in pieces 分级制造火箭;

Cry in anger 气愤地哭叫;

Lie in silence 静静地躺着等

Ⅶ. 介词 in 短语表示目的状语时与动词搭配的用法比较灵活,只要意思讲得通便可。这时多数“in + 名词”短语后常要求带上另一个介词短语,以便使整个意思完整。例如:

Make a statement in one’s own defence(她)进行申诉为自己辩护;

I called him in reply (或 answer) to his letter. 我给他打电话以答复他的来信。

Review the lessons in preparation for the exam 复习功课准备考试;

Walk about the campus in search of sth. 走遍校园寻找某物;

Go out in demand for raising one’s salaries 罢工要求增加工资;

Demonstrate in protest against inflation getting worse 举行游行以反对通货膨胀恶化;

Write a poem in memory of sb. 写一首诗纪念某人;

Come on in welcome of sb.(他们)前来欢迎某人;

Say something in praise of sb. 说些话以表扬某人;

What is the collection in aid of? 这笔募捐款是作什么用的?

注 1:常用 "in order (或 so as) to do sth." 表示目的状语,其中 in order 或 so as 还可省略。例如:She studies hard (in order 或 so as) to get good marks in her exams。她努力学习以便在考试中取得好成绩。

注 2:用 in order that 引出目的状语从句。例如:IC is widely used in electronic industry in order that(或so that)all devices may get even smaller. 电子工业广泛使用集成电路,使所有设备变得更小.

Ⅷ. 介词 in 短语作插入语用(这里 in 具有“按照”含义)

in a sense 在某种意义上;

in fact 事实上;

in general 一般说来;

in my judgement 按照我的判断;

in our view 在我们看来;

in her opinion 按照她的意见;

in sum 简而言之;

in summary 概括地说;

in conclusion 总之;

in short 简单地说;

in a few words 简而言之;

in other words 换句话说等

Ⅸ. 介词 in 后接介词宾语从句、原因状语从句(包括原因状语)、让步状语从句(包括让步状语)时用法举例

A solid is different from a gas in that the solid has a definite shape. 固体有一定形状,在这方面固体和气体是不同的。(介词宾语从句)

You have an advantage over me in that I am bad at spoken Chinese. 你比我优越,因为我的汉语口语不好。(原因状语从句)

In that you are a monitor, you should set a good example to all of us. 因为你是班长,你应该为我们树起好榜样。(原因状语从句)

We canceled the game in view of the rain. 我们因雨取消比赛。(原因状语)

They live in poverty in view of rising prices. 由于物价上涨他们生活困苦。(原因状语)

In spite of our advice, he still thinks that’s right. 不顾我们的忠告,他仍认为那是对的。(让步状语)

In spite of the fact that the colour TVs are expensive, people prefer to buy them. 尽管彩电贵,但人们仍愿买。(in spite of the fact that 引出让步从句。)

二、介词 into 作“进入……或进到……里面”讲时的动词短语举例

break into… 闯入(楼房);

check into the hotel 办理手续住入旅馆 allow (或 permit) sb. into… 允许某人进入(房间);

come into… 进入(房间);

dive into… 潜入(江河、森林),调查研究(问题);

eat into… 腐蚀(衣服等);

enter into business (或 into details) 进入商界或谈论细节;

get into… 进入(汽车),穿上(外衣),陷入(困境即 difficulties);

go into… 走进(房子),研究(问题);

jump into… 跳进(江河),迅速穿上(外衣);

launch the rockets into the space 发射火箭进入宇宙空间;

lead into…(这条路)通入(花园等);

let… into… 让(他)知道(计划、秘密等),将(管子)插进(墙);

look into… 往(教室、镜子即 the mirror)里面看,调查研究(问题);

pour (v.) into…(江河)入(海)、将(大量信件)送入(公司);

run into… 跑入(学校),偶然遇见(某人);

step into… 步入(出租汽车),接替(某人的工作),穿上(鞋);

pass into…(这门科学)进入(新阶段)等

注:绝大多数动作动词和 into 搭配表示“各种动作方式的进入…”,属于动态,而介词 in… 常表示“在……内”,属于静态。注意有些动词短语中的 into 和 in 却可以相互替换。例如:fall into (或 in)… 掉入(湖即 the lake);

get into (或 in) the car 进入汽车;

go into (或 in) the house 走进房子;

place (或 put)… into (或 in)… 将(某人)置于(困境即 the difficult position);

pour sth. into (或 in)… 将某物倒入或灌入(杯)中;

run into (或 in)… 跑入(教室);

throw sth. into (或 in) the basket 将某物扔入筐中等

三、副词 in 作“往里进、在里面、在家里”时的动词搭配用法举例

book in… = book… in 登记(备件即 spareparts 或机器等);

ask sb. in 请某人进去;

call in… 叫(某人)进去,请(医生)来,召唤(部队),要求还(书、钱等);

bring in… 带来(收入即 the income,新款式即 the new style),引入(新技术),请来(教授);

count in 将(某人)算上[指计数在内],将(这三本书)算上;

cut (v.) in(汽车)超车切入,接入或接上(新的电线或一段影片等);

fly (v.) in(我们)乘飞机抵达,(他们)将(旅客或鲜菜)空运进去;

give (v.) in… (我)将(作业)交进去或交上去,(他)让步;

get in… 收(麦子即 wheat 等),收进(债款即 the debt),买进(酒等),请来(医生等);

hand in… 把(作业等)交进去或交上去;

have… in 请(医生)来,把(食物)贮备起来;

lay in… 贮备(淡水、食物),储存(钱等);

leave in… 将(狗等)留在家,将(照片、重要内容)保留下来,把(火)留下来[指“让火不熄灭”];

live (或 sleep) in(保姆等)住在雇主家里,(大学生)住校;

pipe… in 用管道输入(水、油等),吹奏乐器欢迎(某人);

stay (或 remain) in 不外出[如留在家中或放学后留校];

take in… 把(某人)领进来,让(新鲜空气即 fresh air)进来,收容或收留(无家可归的人即 the homeless 等),领会或相信(当前形势等),饱览(姜丽景色即 the beautiful sight)等

注 1:副词 in 用于表示“到达、到来、进站、进港、上市、上台”时的动词短语举例:check in 办理住宿手续,签到[用于上班前];

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sign (v.) in.(使)签到;

come in(潮水即 the tide)来临,(消息)传来,(新鲜蔬菜)上市,(长裙即 the long skirts)在流行[用进行时];

fly (v.) in(旅客等)乘飞机到达,将(鲜鱼)空运来;

pull in(火车等)到站,(船等)靠岸,(汽车等)到达或停下;

push (v.) in(船等)靠岸,(某人)挤入或不排队,(不能)让(某人)挤入;

put (v.) in(船)停靠码头或进港[后可接 to the port],(旅客在途中)稍作停留(以便进餐即 for a meal),(他)正式提交(申请即 application);

settle in(春季)来临,(他)在新居安顿下来,(雨,雪)开始下个不停[由“定居不走”引申过来]等

注2:副词 in 表示“顺便进入”时的动词短语举例:

drop in on sb. 或 at the library 顺便访问某人或图书馆;

fall in on (或 upon) sb. 顺便访问某人或突然遇见某人[结合上下文选择语义];

look in on (或 at) sb. 顺便看望某人;

run in to see sb. 顿便跑去拜访某人;

step in and have a cup of tea with sb. 顺便进门并和某人一起喝茶[表示短时间访问]等

四、副词 in 和由名词转化来的动词(如 fence, ice, wall, wire 等)搭配,表示“用篱笆、冰、墙、铁丝等将……围住或封住”之意

fence in… 用栅栏把(花园)围起来,将(老虎或犯人)关起来;

be iced in(港口、机器等)被冰封住;

be roped (或 wired) in (运动场即 the playground) 被绳子(或铁丝)围起来;

be walled in (校园即 the campus) 被用墙围住等

五、副词兼介词 in 或介词 into 用于表示“参加、参与”时的动词短语举例

be in (或 up) for the exam 正在参加考试;

go in for the discussion 去参加讨论;

go in 参加或进去;

go into…(他)参加(政界即 politics)或参(军即 the army);

come in for… 来参加(考试等);

come in on the project 参与这个项目;

get into… 参加(这个队即 this team),参(军即 the army),参加(唱歌即 singing);

join (v.) in… 参加(我们)一起(跳舞即 dancing 等);

let’s all join in 让我们一起参加;

let sb. into the club 允许某人参加俱乐部;

have a hand (或 apart) in sth. 参与某事;

get a foot in the football team 参加足球队;

enter into… 参加(讨论即 the discussion);

partake (或 take part) in… 参加(讨论等);

I want in. 我想进去(或参加)等

注:表示“参加、参与”含义的短语还有:

We turned out for the meeting. 我们出来参加会议。

He turned up late for the meeting. 他露面参加会议晚了。

六、into 或 in 跟动词搭配时表示“插话、干涉、干预”时的用法举例

break into the conversation 打断别人谈话[由“闯入别人谈话“引申过来];

break in(某人)插话,(消防员等)破门而入[注意上下文选择语义];

cut into the conversation 打(或砍)断别人谈话;

cut in 插嘴[cut in 还可表示“砍入”];

get in a single word 插嘴说句话;

get in 插嘴,(飞机、船等)到达,(雨水)进屋[结合上下文选择语义];

put in a good word 插嘴说好话;

put in 插话;

throw (或 fling);in that unnecessary remark 插嘴说不必要的意见;

throw (或 fling) in 插嘴说;

pipe in 插上一杠子或插嘴[动词 pipe 作“尖声讲话”讲];

strike into someone else’s quarrel 干预或介入别人的争吵;

strike in 插嘴;

strike in with a question 插嘴提一个问题;

interfere in (或 with) the conversation (或 sb.’s private affairs)打断别人谈话或干预某人私事;

push in without being invited(他)未受邀请而粗鲁地插话;

push in on this(她)干预这件事等

七、into, in 用于表示“偶然碰到或碰见”时的动词短语用法举例

run into… 偶然碰见(他),偶然碰到(门),跑入(教室);

knock (v.) into… 偶然碰见(她),把(钉子即 nails)敲入(木)中;

catch sb. in 偶然在家或办公室遇见某人;

fall in with sb. (在旅行中)偶然碰见某人;

bang into… 偶然遇见(某人),偶然碰到(门)并(伤了胳膊即 hurt the arm)[bang 为拟声词,由“砰一响碰到…”引申过来]等

注:英语有 100 多个动词短语表示“偶然碰见、碰到……”含义。不限于使用 into 或 in。必须用形象加联想来理解。

八、into 用于表示“调查研究”时的动词短语举例

dig (本义:掘,挖) into… 钻研(问题即 the problem);

dive(本义:潜入)into… 深入研究(问题);

dip(本义掏取)into… 稍加研究(问题);

go into… 调查研究(问题);

look into… 调查(公司的账即 the company’s accounts);

search(搜查)into… 调查(一件事即 a matter);

research into… 研究(一个项目即 a project);

examine into the rumour 调查谣言;

inquire (或 enquire) into… 调查(这一事件即 the incident);

investigate into… 深入调查(这案子即 the case)[有“官方调查、审查”含义];

check into sb.’s background 调查某人的经历;

see into the state of a company 调查一家公司的状况等

九、into 表示“进人某种状态”时的动词短语举例

fall into sleep (或 a dangerous state) 进入梦乡或陷入险境;

get (v.) into trouble (或 such a habit)(使)陷入困境或(使)养成这样一个习惯;

lead (v.) into…(使)陷入(困境即 trouble),(这个错误)造成(损失即 loss);

pass into a deep sleep 进入沉睡;

put… into production (或 operation, use) 将(机器)投入生产(或运转、使用);

run into danger 闯入险境;

go into force(合同即 the contract)开始生效;

Short skirts are coming into fashion. 短裙子正在流行。fly into a temper(他)突然发脾气等

十、into 表示转义并译为“变为、成为”时的动词短语举例

convert coal into pipeline gas 将煤转变为管道煤气;

grow (up) (或 develop) into… (一颗种子即 a seed)长成(或发展为)(一颗树);

make… into… 将(旧房)改为(高楼),将(这件服装)改为(裙子即 a skirt),将(这男孩)培养成(大学生);

pass into… 水变为(蒸汽);

transform the little town into a big city 将小城镇改造为大城市;

translate (或 turn, put, do) Chinese into English 将汉语译成英语;

turn… into… 将(大楼)改为(医院);

change (v.) into…(我们)将(水)变为(冰),(水)变为(蒸汽)等

十一、into 表示“分为或分成若干份、块、粉末”时与动词搭配用法举例

break the chocolate into pieces 将巧克力分成块;

crush coal into powders 将煤碎成粉末;

cut paper into strips 将纸切成纸条;

divide… into… 将(蛋糕即 the cake)分为(三份),将(9)除以(3);

The story falls into four parts. 这故事分为四个部分。separate… into… 将(空气)分离为(氢、氧等),将(这个班分为(三个组);

split (v.) into… 将(分子)分解为(原子),将(原木即 the log)劈成(两半即 two halves),(学生)分为(四个组);

tear (v.) into… 将(布即 the cloth)撕成(长条即 strips),(这些老虎)撕裂(一只小动物)等

十二、into… 表示使人采取某种行动时与动词搭配用法举例

argue sb. into doing sth. 通过辩论说服某人做某事;

persuade sb. into doing sth. 劝说某人做某事;

push (或 shove) sb. into doing sth. 推动某人做某事;

talk sb. into lending him the car 说服某人将汽车借给他;

be pulled into helping him with his lessons(她)被拉去帮助他做功课等

注:若将本类动词短语中的 into 改为 out of,则就构成反义,就变为“说服、劝说、推动某人不做某事”。

inf. 动词不定式的用法和判别

一、动词不定式的构成和在句中表示的形式

不定式一般由“to + 动词原形”构成。它具有原动词的搭配关系(如宾语、状语等)。在科技文章中见到的动词不定式有下列表中几个形式(以 write(写)为例):

语态 | 时态 主动态 被动态

一般时 to write to be written

进行时 to be writting

完成时 to have written to have been written

完成进行时 to have been writting

Heat is required to change ice to water. 把冰变为水,就需要热。(一般式主动态)

It is a new product to be tested. 这是一个待测试的新产品。(一般式被动态)

The fourth generation computer is said to be rotating normally. 据说这台第四代计算机在正常运转。(进行式主动态)

完成式的动词不定式一般表示行为发生在句中谓语动词所表示的行为之前,表示已实现的行为。但是,如果在 plan (计划), hope (希望),expect (期待) 等动词过去时或 was, were 的后边用完成式的不定式动词,则表示没有实现的行为。此外,在带有非真实条件从句的主句内,不带 to 的完成式的动词不定式和 should, would, might, could 等动词连用时,也表示没有实现的行为。

I. 已实现的行为

If a body moves from one position to another, it is said to have had displacement. 如果物体从一个位置向另一个位置移动,我们就说这个物体已有了位移。(完成式主动态)

This machine is said to have been tested. 据说已经对这台机器进行了试验。(完成式被动态。原文直译为:据说这台机器已被试验了。)

It was the first book to have appeared on the system engineering. 当时这是系统工程出的第一本书。(完成式主动态)

The test was known to have been going on for three years. 据悉这项试验已进行了三年。

II. 没有实现的行为

We planned to have made this experiment yesterday. 我们本来计划昨天做这个实验。(完成式主动态。实际上昨天没有做这个实验。)

注意有时可用“was (或 were) + 不定式动词的完成式”表示过去未实现的动作。例如:

We were to have taken these machines apart. 我们本来要拆开这些机器。

He was to have got out of bed (或 got up) at five. 他本来打算五点起床。

二、动词不定式在句中的用法

I. 作主语

To develop our information industries rapidly is necessary. 迅速发展我们的信息产业是必要的。(上句也可改成用形式主语 it. 的句子结构表示,即:It is necessary to develop our information industries rapidly. 句义同上。)

It takes a definite amount of heat to change a liquid to its gaseous state. 将液体变为气体需要一定的热量。 (句中 it 是先行代词,作形式主语。)

It became necessary to build new plants for products never before produced. 当时建立新工厂生产过去从未生产过的产品,显得很有必要了。(It 为形式主语。)

It is general practice to use a pump to transport liquids. 使用泵输送液体是常见的做法。(It 为形式主语。)

II. 不定式作谓语的组成部分(包括“系词 be 等 + 表语”的复合谓语在内)

A. “主语 + ought (或 have, is going, is able 等) + 不定式”

This laboratory ought to be re-equipped with modern apparatuses. 这个实验室应该用现代化设备重新装备。

We are going to guarantee the machines against loss. 我们将保证机器不受损失。(常用于已考虑并将进行的动作。)

We have to take part in this work. 我们必须参加这项工作。

We are able to wholly manufacture new products. 我们能够全部地制造新产品。

注:英语中有时把副词放在 to 和不定式动词中间,这时副词必然是修饰不定式动词的(见上面第 4 句)。

B. “主语 + is (或 seem 好像,appear 似乎,happen 碰巧,…等) + 多半作表语的不定式或其短语”。

Our task is to build a high-tech information center. 我们的任务是建立(或盖起)一个高科技信息中心。

To know everything is to know nothing. 样样皆通,样样稀松。(谚语)

This seemed to have given account of the problem. 看来这已对这个问题作了解释。

This appears to be the only exception the rule. 这似乎是这条规则的唯一例外。

We happened to be only two miles short of the plant. 当时我们恰好离厂只有两英里。

We are to improve the method. 我们要改进这个方法。(本句为将来时,其中不定式短语并不作表语。)

注:上句用法与 B 项第 1 句的差别在于主语 we 能产生“改进”动作。

The method is to be described in detail. 这个方法将予以详细说明。(将来时被动态)

It seems to be going to rain again. 天好像又要下雨。(句中谓语为现在时,后面“to be going + 不定式”仍表示将发生的动作。)

C. 注意“主语 + be 的相应形式 + 不定式”的三种用法(以主语能产生后面不定式所表示的动作为前提)。

They are to hand in their homework. 他们打算交上课外作业。(相当于将来时,兼有计划、打算含义。)

If she were to give consideration to all kinds of situation, she would cast a new light upon problem. 假如她果真将考虑各种各样情况,她对这问题就会有新的认识了。(用于对将来事实可能相反的假设从句内。)

They were to have talked of going on a visit, but they forgot it. 他们本来要谈及出访问题,但他们忘了。(was, were 后接不定式动词完成式,表示过去未实现的动作。)

D. 在“主语 + be 的相应形式 + certain 必然(或 likely 像要……的,unlikely 不像要…的,sure 必定,…等)+ 不定式”中,不定式只说明“在什么方面体现了形容词所指出的特征或性质”。例如:

a. They are sure to succeed. 他们一定成功。(外界看法)

b. I am sure of success. 我确信成功。(与 a 句含意不同,仅表示本人自信。)

The above-mentioned reactions are certain (或 bound) to proceed smoothly. 上述反应一定会进行得很顺利。(一种判断)

This experiment is likely (或 unlikely) to produce good results. 这项实验可能(或不可能)给出良好的结果。(同上)

This question is sure to be asked. 这个问题一定会(被)问到。(同上)

They are not likely to have made a long distance call. 他们多半还没有打长途电话. (=It is not likely that she has made a long distance call)(同上)

Those small houses are bound to have been pulled down (by them). 那些简陋小房一定是被他们推倒了。(同上)

E. “主语+不定式”用于新闻报刊标题表示将来时。

Clinton to visit Japan. 克林顿将访问日本

Reforms to promote information industries. 改革将促进信息产业

III. 作宾语

A. 不定式或其短语作动词的宾语

We decided to begin the experiment in the evening. 我们决定晚上开始那个实验。

We think it necessary to begin with the experiment. 我们认为先做这个实验是必要的。(it 为形式宾语,不定式短语为真正宾语。)

This sounds better and better. But before I sign a contract I would like for my husband to see it. 这听起来越来越好了。但是我倒是愿意在合同签订前让我丈夫过目一下。(不定式前用 for 引出不定式动作的逻辑主体。)

a. We’d better quit (或 stop) talking and get back to work. 我们最好停止谈话并且回去工作。

b. I stopped to look at my watch. 我停了下来看一下手表。(不定式短语作目的状语。)

注:动词 stop, quit 后面一般用 -ing 作宾语,而不能用其不定式作其宾语,而 hope, agree, ask, decide, demand desire, offer, promise, refuse, choose, manage, try, threaten, wish, afford 等动词后面一般可用不定式及其短语作宾语,却不用 -ing 及其短语作宾语。

B. 作介词 about, but 等的宾语:(参阅第 3节、五和四以及第 30 节、十二第 5, 6 句)

We are about to start. 我们快要出发了。(也可把 about 分析为副词,而谓语 are to start 表示将来时。)

They had no choice but to lay down their arms. 他们除了放下武器之外别无其它选择。(参阅第 042 节 except, but 的用法。)

One of the more serious problems is that of how to get more water for man to use. 较为严重的问题之一是如何获得更多的水供人使用。(“疑问词 + 不定式”始终在句中顶一个名词用。that 代替 the problem, of 后 how… 为其同位语。)

We are researching on what measures to take in the production. 我们正在研究生产中采取什么措施。

He did not think of when to hold the meeting. 他没有考虑何时举行会议。

Ⅳ. 作宾语补语(即动词的直接宾语和不定式在意义上有“主谓”关系)

Two days later, we proved these facts to be correct. 两天以后,我们证明了这些事实是正确的。

We consider all bodies to possess weight. 我们认为所有物体都有重量。

注 1:在某些动词(think 想,consider 认为,find 觉得)后面,当宾语补语是 to be… 时,to be 可省略,直接跟上形容词等作宾语补语用:

They found the answers (to be) correct. 他们觉得答案正确。

注2:在 make(使得),have(使),let(让)和表示感觉的动词 see(看),notice(注意),watch(注视),observe(观察),hear(听),feel(觉得),perceive(觉察)等后面用不定式作宾语补语时,往往不用不定式前面的 to。例如:

Electricity makes household electric appliances run. 电使家用电器运作。

Let F represent force. 让(或译“设”)F 表示力。

I saw the truck stop. 我看见那辆卡车停下来了。

We felt the atmosphere grow tense. 我们感到气氛紧张起来。

I did not notice him do it in very much the same way. 我未注意他用完全相同的方法做这件事。

注 3:有时不及物动词加上一个介词,当作一个及物动词来使用,后面也可以用一个“宾语 + 不定式(作宾语补语用)”的结构。例如:

We rely upon you to be careful in test flying a plane. 我们相信你们在试飞飞机时是小心谨慎的。

We cannot count on another country to help us. 我们不能指望另外一个国家来援助我们。具有这种用法的多半为成语动词,如 call on(号召),long for(渴望),vote for(投票赞成),prevail upon(说服),wait for(等待)等。又如:

We are waiting for him to arrive. 我们正等着他来。

注 4:在 listen to 和 look at 后的“宾语 + 不定式(作宾补)”结构中,不定式常不带 to。例如:

I listened to the engine make a noise. 当时我倾听发动机发出闹声。

I like to look at children swim. 我喜欢观看小孩游泳。

注意有时介词后单独接“介词宾语 + 不定式”,以构成复合宾语。例如:The weeds grow without people to help. 杂草是在无人照料情况下生长的。

注 5:根据上下文作逻辑判别。例如:If we succeed in experimenting with ways of using solar energy to desalt, desert regions near oceans may be able to get enough fresh water to become fertile. 如果我们对于利用太阳能淡化海水的方法进行实验取得成功,则濒海的荒芜地区就能获得足够的淡水而变为富饶。(句末 to become… 为结果状语而不是宾语补语。)

V. 作主语补语

现举两个例子来说明宾语补语和主语补语之间的联系:

We know this chemical change to be under way.(主动态)

直接宾语 宾语补语

我们知道这一化学变化正在进行中。

This chemical change is known to be under way. (被动态)

主语 主语补语

大家都知道,这一化学变化正在进行中。(意译)

上面第 1 句中的主动态不定式是句中直接宾语 change 的宾语补语。

在第 2 句被动态中 change 变为主语,但不定式仍说明 change,故叫做“主语补语”。再举几个包含主语补语的例子:

This material was proved to be extremely stable. 这种材料曾被证实是极其稳定的。

These reactions were thought to proceed smoothly. 当时曾认为这些反应进行得很顺利。

必须注意,在本情况下,当不定式是 tobe 时,有时就可省略不用。例如:

Computer sand foreign languages are considered (to be) very important. 人们认为计算机和外语很重要。

He can be depended on to solve this problem. 可以依靠他来解决这个问题。

(句子未按原文结构翻译。其相应的主动句为:We can depend on him to solve this problem. 这里不定式短语作宾语补语。)

Ⅵ. 作后置定语

The capacity (或 ability) todo work is known as energy. 作功的本领通常称为功。

注 1:类似于 capacity 等的抽象名词还有 power(能力),way(方法,方式),chance(机会),tendency(趋势、倾向),determination(决心),order(命令、指令)等,其后均可用不定式短语作后置定语。

This is the work to be done. 这是要做的工作。

It is a difficult question to answer. 这是一个难以回答的问题。

This is a fine room to work in. 这是一间适于(在其内)工作的好房间。

注 2:注意上两句中不定式作定语的特点:不定式中缺位的宾语或介词宾语正好是所修饰的前面名词。现再举几例如下:

1)The personal office is the place to send your application to. 人事处是你申请书发往的单位。

2)The astronauts may have to sit in the spacecraft for weeks, with very little to do and no one to talk with. 宇航员也许得坐在宇宙飞船好几个星期,并且无所作为和无人可以交谈。

There is no key with which to open the door. (或… no key to open the door with.) 没有能打开这扇门的钥匙。

注 3:不定式动词如带有介词,则作定语时,仍可保留它的介词,甚至还用上关系代词。详见上述最后两句。

注 4:注意与下列句子进行比较:

1)She speaks too fast (for me) to understand. 她讲话太快,(我)不好理解。(句末 understand 空缺的 her 不允许表示出来,而“她”正是句中的主语 she。)

2)The room is comfortable to live in. 这房间住起来舒服。

注 5:上两句内不定式动词缺位的宾语和介词宾语,正好是句中主语。注意这种不定式作形容词(在句中作表语)的状语的用法。甚至当该形容词作宾语补语或主语补语时,这种用法照样保留。例如:

1)We consider the question (to be) difficult to answer. 我们认为这问题难于回答。(宾语补语)

2)The question is considered (to be) difficult to answer. 这问题被认为是难于回答的。(主语补语)

3)We found the room comfortable to live in.(当时)我们发现这房间住起来舒服。(宾语补语)

4)The room was found comfortable to live in. 当时发现这房间住起来舒服。(主语补语)

Ⅶ. 作状语,一般有三种情况:

A. 表示结果

This metal acts on water to set hydrogen free. 这种金属作用于水,就放出氢。

That tool is too heavy to lift directly. 那件工具太重,不能直接举起。

The temperature is high enough to change water into steam. 温度高得足以使水变为蒸汽。

注:too… 和 enough 后面的不定式,一般表示结果程度含义。例如上面第 2,3 句。

This question is difficult to answer. 这个问题难于回答。

Trees can grow to be many thousands of times the size of what they were at first. 树能长到相当于树苗千万倍的大小。

B. 表示目的,常采用“in order + 不定式”或直接用不定式表示:

We use electricity (in order) to run machines. 我们使用电力来开动机器。

In order to go on a trip, we must have enough money and time. 为了去旅游,我们必须有足够的钱和时间。

They went there to work to overcome these difficulties. 那时他们是为着解决这些困难去那边工作的。

注:上句中 to work 是 went 的目的状语,而 to overcome…(解决问题)是 to work 的目的状语。

C. “such 或 so + as + 不定式”表示目的或结果状语(判别见本节四、Ⅵ B. 和第 16 节例 69,74):

We do that so as to save time. 我们那么做是为了省时间。(目的状语)

We shall work so hard as to overcome our difficulties. 我们将努力工作,以克服我们的困难。(目的状语)

Water is reacted (或 united) with many of the oxides so readily as to form (或 yield) some important compounds. 水易于和许多氧化物起反应(或化合),并形成一些重要的化合物。(结果状语)

These two compounds react in such a way as to give off oxygen. 这两个化合物按这种方式起反应,就能放出氧气。(结果状语)

D. 不定式短语作原因状语

He felt much honoured to have you come to visit China. 能有您来中国访问,当时他感到非常荣幸。

They were delighted to learn of the arrival of our teacher. 他们听说我们的老师抵达大为高兴。

Any modern scientist would be thrilled to have his research compared with Einstein’s. 任何当代科学家都会由于其研究可与爱因斯坦的研究相媲美而感到激动。

E. 不定式短语作条件状语

To look at her, you would never guess she was a professor.(如果)看她的样子,你决想不到她是一位教授。

To hear him sing, you might take him for a girl.(如果)听他唱,你也许会认为他是女孩。

F. 不定式短语作让步状语

To do his best, he won't be able to review so many lessons in time. 即使他竭尽全力,他仍不能按时复习那么多课的书。

Ⅷ. 不定式短语作同位语:

Our task, todo that work in one day, could be accomplished. 我们的任务是用一天时间做完那项工作,那是可能完成的。

Their purpose, to produce more video cameras for the country, worthy of praise (或… worthy to be praised 或… worthy of being praised). 他们的目的是要为国家生产更多的摄像机,这是值得表扬的。

The question (of) whether to fly to Shanghai has not been decided yet. 是否飞往上海的问题尚未决定。

Ⅸ. 不定式短语作插入语:

By energy, to be exact, we mean the capacity to do work. 准确地说,我们所指的能量是作功的本领。

To conclude, his coming here is a great help to us. 总之,他来到这里对我们帮助很大。

His English is poor, to begin with. 首先是他的英语差。

X. 注意“疑问词 + 不定式”在句中的功能(通常顶一个名词):

How to do it is a difficult question. 如何做这件事是一个难题。(主语)

The question is when to start. 问题是何时出发。(表语)

We do not know where to stop. 我们不知道在哪儿停下来。(宾语)

They did not tell us whether to go on or to stop. 他们没有告诉我们继续走还是停下来。(宾语)

We had a useful discussion on the question of how to repair this machine. 我们曾对如何修理这台机器的问题进行了有益的讨论。(介词宾语)

He was at a loss as to how to get rid of trouble. 他惊惶失措,不知如何摆脱窘境。(介词宾语)

三、关于“ for 或其它有关介词 + 名词(或代词)+ 不定式”结构和不定式动词的主动态及被动态表达方法

I. 用 for + 名词(或代词)来表示不定式的行为逻辑主体:

This is the right place for a plant to grow. 这正是一种植物生长的好地方。(定语)

The electronic computer is not only an ideal machine for us to solve complicated problems with but (also) a good device for us to store facts and information in. 电子计算机不仅是我们用以解难题的一种理想机器,而且也是我们储存资料和数据的良好装置。(定语)

It is necessary for the goods to be packed in strong cases. 有必要将这些货物包装在结实的箱子内。(主语)

The best solution is for them to make an investment of one billion yuan in the project. 最好的解决办法是让他们在这个项目投资十亿元人民币。(表语)

All these conditions made it possible for us to be living a happy life. 所有这些条件使我们能过着幸福的生活。(it 为形式宾语,带 for… 的不定式短语为真正宾语)

The valve opened for air to enter.(那时)阀门打开,从而使空气进入。(结果状语)

In order for this process to take place it is necessary to raise the temperature. 为了使该过程发生,就有必要升高温度。

II. 注意由 of 引出不定式的逻辑主体的用法特点

It is kind (或 nice) of you to help me (to) review the lessons. 你真好,帮我复习功课。

How considerable of you to take me a show! 你多么体贴入微,领我去看演出!

A:I’ve left my umbrella in the bus. 甲:我把雨伞拉在公共汽车上了。

B:That was careless of you. 乙:那是你不小心了。(后略 to leave…。)

从上述例句中可看出,所用的形容词都是表示智力或品行的形容词来描述人,而不定式短语所表示的行为也可用这个形容词来描绘。在这两个前提都具备时,就应该用 of 引出行为主体,尽量不用 for 引出。以上述第二句为例。带我去看演出是“体贴入微”,而 you 本人也可用 considerable 来描述。这类用法的形容词有:thoughtful (考虑周到的),stupid (笨的),rude (粗鲁的),wrong,clever 等。

III. 注意某些“动词 + 有关介词 + 介词宾语 + 不定式”本身是固定短语的用法

He depended (或relied, counted) on you to help him. 当时他依靠(或指望)你来帮助他。

She wants to ask (for) Jenny to come here. 她想请詹妮来这里。(若用 for,则含有目的意味。)

We’ll wait for that task to be fulfilled. 我们将等那项任务完成。

The teacher called on (或 upon) us to plant trees. 老师号召了我们种树。

Ⅳ. 动词不定式的主动态和被动态表达方法

当不定式所说明的人或物是不定式所表示的动作的对象(即是一种“动词和宾语”的关系)时,不定式一般可用被动态。例如:

Some molecules are large enough to be seen in the electronic microscope. 有些分子大得足以能够用电子显微镜看见它们。

The book seems to have been translated into many languages already. 这本书看来已译成了好多种语言。

We want the letter to be typed at once. 我们希望信件马上打字。

Let us show you the engine to be tested. 让我们给你看看要检验的那台发动机。

但是问题在于某些句子结构中,不定式虽然和所说明的人或物是“动词和宾语”的关系,但仍用主动态的不定式. 阅读时必须正确对待。例如:

They gave me some books to read. 他们给了我几本书阅读。

We found the report hard to understand. 我们觉得这个报告难以理解。

上面两句中不定式所表示的动作,从意义上看,分别是 me(我)和 we(我们) 产生的。因此,没有用被动态不定式,看来与不定式动词的逻辑主语在句中已出现有关。但是也有句中不定式逻辑主体没有出现而仍用主动态不定式的。例如:

There is a lot of work to do. 有许多工作要做。(但用 to be done也可,都作定语。)

It is an easy question to answer. 这是个易于回答的问题。(但用 to be answered 也可,都作定语。)

This question is easy to answer. 这个问题容易回答。(但用 to be answered 也可,都作状语。)

This weather is not fit to make the experiment in. (=It is not fit to make the experiment in this weather.) 这种天气不适于做那个实验。(不定式短语作状语,修饰前面的形容词。但在括号内的句子中,不定式短语则作真正主语。)

上面四个例句中的不定式没有用被动态,可以理解为泛指不定式的逻辑主语或省略“for + 不定式的逻辑主语”结构。如果强调不定式的逻辑主语,上述四个句子中都可以在不定式主动态前加用“for + 不定式的逻辑主语”结构。但是在“I have much work to do”中,就不能用不定式被动态 to be done 代替。句中已出现发生动作的 "I" 是一个理由,正因为如此,不能再在不定式动词前面使用”for+逻辑主语”结构。

四、不定式各种语法作用的判别。

I. 根据不定式在句中的位置来进行判别:

A. 句子一开头就用不定式,后面主语和谓语完整不缺,这时不定式一般作目的状语用,但有时可能是插入语,极少数情况下可能是条件状语等。要根据上下文和短语含义进行判断。例如:

To run a direct current motor, we must connect it to a direct current source. 为了开动直流电机,我们必须把它接到直流电源上。(目的状语)

To say the truth, he is not equal to this task. 老实说,他不能胜任这项任务。(插入语)

To compare this book with that one, you would find a great difference between them both. 如果将这本书同那本书比较一下,你就会发现这两本书大不相同。(条件状语)

B. 表示结果意义的不定式,其位置一般都在句末,但在句末的不定式不全是表示结果意义的。最后判别得靠上下文才能决定。如果句末出现“only + 不定式短语”结构,则常作结果状语,一般都是未曾想到的不愉快的结果或只是偶尔表示未曾料到的愉快结果。

Hydrogen and copper oxide react to form copper and water. 氢和氧化铜起反应就产生铜和水。(结果状语)

Energy must be added to cause some chemical changes to occur. 必须加入能量,才能使某些化学变化发生。(第一个不定式为目的状语,第二个为宾语补语。)

This question is too difficult to answer. 这个问题太难,回答不了。(程度状语。注意“too + 形容词或副词 + 不定式”用法,后面不定式翻译时得加否定词。详见本书第 112 节、三~五。)

We reached the railway station only to be told the Beijing Express had left two minutes before. 我们到达火车站,结果有人告诉我们说,北京直达快车在两分钟前开走了。

I hurried back only to find my daughter waiting still for me. 我急忙回来,结果发现女儿仍然在等我。

C. 作定语的不定式,其位置必然在所修饰的名词后面,多半不会超出前面大词组范围。例如:

We have quite a lot of work to do. 我们有很多工作要做。(直译为:我们有很多要做的工作。)

The ability of a material to unite with oxygen is a chemical property. 一个物质和氧化合的能力是一种化学性质。

II. 判别不定式作宾语补语用时,应首先注意句中主要动词是否是表示判断、料想、意见、心理感觉的动词(如believe 相信,think 想,consider 认为,report 报告,know 知道,find 发现,see 看见等)。如果是,再加上主要动词的直接宾语能够发出后面不定式所表示的动作,句意又符合逻辑,那就很可能是宾语补语。例如:

We think these reactions to proceed in a violent manner. 我们认为这些反应能进行得很剧烈。

Knowing X to equal Y, we can solve this equation. 知道 X 等于 Y,我们就能解这个方程式。

判别时把 knowing 换成原形动词,这个分词结构中后面的宾语补语不就很清楚了吗!此外,仍须注意上下文。例如:

They wrote (for) us to come. 他们写信要我们去。(句中 for 还可省略,仍应理解为目的状语,不能理解为宾语和宾语补语。这里要靠上下文进行逻辑判别。)

III. 判别主语补语时,首先注意主要的谓语动词是否是上述那些动词变来的被动态。由于汉语中被动态用得不如英语多,一时不易理解,不妨可以把句子改成相应的主动态,主语变为“人们”或“我们”,这时原来的句子主语变为直接宾语,动词不定式变为宾语补语,就易于接受和理解句子意思了。例如:

The molecules of all matter are believed to be moving. 先把它改成主动态的句子,则为:

We believe the molecules of all matter to be moving.

上两句均可译为:我们确信所有物质的分子都在运动中。

The data have been admitted to be correct.

同理,可改为下列主动态句子:

All of us have admitted the data to be correct. 我们大家都已承认这些数据是正确的。

考虑到这个句子翻译成汉语被动态形式,中国人也能接受,故上句也可译为:这些数据已被公认为是正确的。但是对于科技书刊中较为常用的“主语 + is said + 不定式(作主语补语用)”这种句型来说,就不能采用上述将被动态还原为主动语态的办法。应按汉语“(我们或人们)说……(指主语)怎么怎么了”或“据说……”格式翻译即可。例如:

When a body moves from one position to another, it is said to have had a displacement. 如果一个物体从一位置往另一位置移动,我们就说它有了位移。注意有时还出现过去分词结构带着类似于主语补语的句子成份。例如:

The book known to be difficult is in the library. 大家都知道的那本难读的书是在图书馆。(句中 known 短语作 book 的定语。改写为 "The book which is known to be difficult is in the library", 就容易看出过去分词后边带了一个主语补语。)

Ⅳ. 注意有些来自动词或形容词的同源名词,也可跟用原动词或原形容词要求跟用的不定式。例如:

Electricity possesses the ability to do work. 电具有作功的本领。试比较:Electricity is able to do work. 电能够作功。

They made an attempt to improve the working method. 他们对操作方法的改进作了一次尝试。试比较:He attempted to solve the problem.(当时)他试图解这道题。

属于本类用法的同源名词还有:determination(决心),capacity(能力),tendency(倾向),hope(希望),plan(计划)等。

Ⅴ. 注意某些场合下,不定式带 to 和不带 to 在意义上有显著差别

当 make, have 作“致使”讲时,后面不定式不带 to;如果带to, 则 make 和 have 分别作“制作”和“有”讲。例如:

We like to have the house look clean and tidy. 我们喜欢使房子显得干净整齐。(宾语补语)

We will have you know that we have made the machine work at full speed. 我们要你知道我们已使这台机器全速运转了。(斜体字都是宾语补语)

a) He has no one help him. 他不要人帮他忙。(宾语补语)

b) He has no one to help. 他没有人要帮忙。(定语。原义为:他没有需要帮助的人。)

c) He has no one to help him. 他没有人帮他的忙。(定语。原义为:他没有帮他忙的人。)

Electricity makes elevators run. 电使电梯运转。(宾语补语)

They have made the oil and water separate from each other. 他们已使油、水彼此分离。(宾语补语)

We make more steel to develop our industry and agriculture. 我们生产更多的钢以发展我们的工农业。(目的状语)

We made some changes in our plan to improve our work. 我们对计划作了某些修改,以改进我们的工作。(目的状语)

必须指出,当句中主要动词 make(使得)变为被动态后,其后面所带的不定式动词就都要带 to。虽然这时不定式带 to,却不一定表示这个带 to 的不定式作目的状语用。例如:

He was made to come. 有人让他来的。(主语补语)

see, hear 等动词后面用的不定式(作宾语补语)也不带to,但变为被动态后,不定式都要加 to,但也不一定表示不定式具有目的意义。例如:

He was seen to drive the truck at high speed. 有人见他高速驾驶卡车。(主语补语。直译为:他被人看见高速……)

Ⅵ. 是内容决定形式,而不是形式决定内容:

A. 下面三句结构形式都是“主语 + be(随主语而变)+ 不定式”:

They are to improve the network news. 他们要改进网络新闻。

Our task is to develop the west of China. 我们的任务是开发中国西部。

These books are not to be taken out of the library. 这些书不准携出图书馆外。

判别依据是第 1 句中 they 能产生 improve(改进)这个动作,故这个”be + 不定式”结构表示拟议中“将要做的动作”。但第二句中ourtask(我们的任务)本身不能产生 build(建设)这个动作,但 build 这个动作在逻辑上却等于主语所表达的意思——“我们的任务”,于是就成了“A is B (表语)“的结构,只不过这里表语 B 是以不定式表示而已。

第三句结构是 "be + not + tobe + 过去分词",虽然表面上与上述句型结构相同,但多了个 not 和过去分词的要求,就作“禁止”、“不许可”意思用了。

B. 下面两句结构都是"so + as + 不定式":

We do that so as to save a great deal of time. 我们这样做是为了节省很多时间。(目的状语)

Such instruments are so well known as not to require detailed description here. 这些仪表是众所周知的,因此不需要在此处详细描述。(结果状语)

遇到上述情况,仅仅凭语法结构就无能为力了,只能根据上下文进行逻辑判断,以决定后面的不定式是目的意义还是结果意义。

Ⅶ. 不定式短语前有 in order, so as 或 on purpose, 则整个短语作目的状语;有时上述这些词还可省略。

We work hard in order (或 so as) to build a beautiful city. 我们努力工作是为了建立一个美丽的城市。(可省略 in order 或 so as。)

He went there on purpose (或 in order) to make demonstration. 他去那儿是为了作示范表演。(可省略 on purpose 或 in order。)

Ⅷ. 注意用 to 代替前面已出现的不定式短语或谓语动词等:

You may clear the dishes off the table if you want to. 你愿意的话,可以把桌上的盘子清理走。

He wants to pull out the nail, but we prefer not to. 他想要拔掉这个钉子,但我们想还是不拔为宜。

-ing 现在分词和动名词的用法和判别

一、-ing 的基本用法

I. “be + -ing + …”构成现在、过去、将来进行时主动态。(参阅第 134 节、五~八)

The liquid is flowing down the tower under the force of gravity. 液体在重力作用下正沿着塔往下流。(现在进行时主动态)

When he came here, we were studying English. 当他来这里时,我们正在学习英语。(过去进行时主动态)

In a few years the station will be feeding (或 supplying) power to many industrial plants. 再过几年,那座发电站将向许多工厂供电。(将来进行时主动态)

II. “have, had 或 shall (或 will) have + been + -ing + …”构成现在、过去、将来这三种完成进行时主动态。(参阅第 134 节、九~十三)

We have been studying the environment protection for a longtime. 很久以来我们一直在研究环境保护。(现在完成进行时主动态)

Chemists had been studying the atmosphere for about two thousand years before its composition was discovered. 化学家们一直在研究大气,研究了约二千年,它的组成才被发现。(过去完成进行时主动态)

By the end of this year they will have been studying English for a year. 到今年年底,他们学习英语有一年了。(将来完成进行时主动态,主语第一人称,则可用 shall 代 will。)

I have just been thinking of my friends back home. 我刚才正想念我的那些回家的朋友。

注:下列动词极少用于进行时(包括完成进行时):know, hear, feel, appear, appreciate, believe, forget, like, look like…, notice, remember, resemble, see 等。

III. “being + 过去分词”构成被动态. 这里有三种情况:

A.“is (或 was) + being(现在分词)+ 过去分词”构成现在、过去这两种进行时被动态:

This network computer is being operated by a programmer. 这台网络计算机现在正由一位程序员在操作。

When I entered the workshop, the machine toll was being adjusted by a worker. 当我进入车间时,那台机床正由一位工人在调整。

注:将来进行时和完成进行时没有相应的被动态。

B. being 前没有 is 或 was 之类动词,仅仅是动名词“being + 过去分词”构成被动意义。例如:

The object is at rest and resists being moved quickly. 物体静止,就阻止物体本身迅速移动。(直接宾语。意译。)

Television waves pass right through the layer without being reflected. 电视波径直通过这一层(指电离层)而不被反射。(介词宾语)

He went this way in order to escape being seen. 他走这条路是为了避开被人看见。(直接宾语)

She hasn't been used to being spoken to like that yet. 她尚不习惯于别人那样地对她说话。(介词宾语)

C. “being(现在分词)+ 过去分词”作定语和在独立分词结构中以及介词后的“主谓”结构(即复合结构)中的用法

We must pay attention to the problems being discussed here. 我们必须重视这里正在(被)讨论的问题。(定语)

The electric current produced is the result of chemical energy being changed to electrical energy. 所产生的电流是化学能转变为电能的结果。(复合结构作介词宾语。)

Ⅳ. “-ing + 原动词具有的搭配关系”在句中作主语、宾语、表语、状语、介词宾语。(除其中作状语用的 -ing 为现在分词外,其余均为动名词。)

A. 作主语用:

Melting and boiling take place under certain conditions. 熔融和沸腾发生在一定条件之下。

In the given case warming the solid converts it to a liquid. 在给定情况下,加热这种固体能使它变成液体。

There is no failing in the test. 不可能在试验中失败。

注:“There is + no + -ing “表示“不可能”之意。

a. It’s no use asking the old woman — she doesn't understand what we say. 问这位老妇人毫无用处——她不懂得我们说的话。(本句还可用 There’s no use (in) asking…代替。)

b. Is it any use trying to keep company with him? 力争跟他交往有用吗?

注:动名词短语作真正主语很少见,不如不定式为多。它主要用在含有 no use, useless, no good, worth while, waste, dangerous, senseless(无意义的,愚蠢的),nuisance(讨厌的),foolish 等词的搭配结构中。例如:It is senseless (或 a waste of time) doing that. 做那件事是无意义的(或浪费时间的)。

B. 作宾语、介词宾语或个别形容词的宾语用:

I like reading English every morning. 我喜欢每天早晨读英语。(动词宾语)

Their installation method is worth trying. 他们的安装方法值得试一试。(固定要求,作形容词宾语。)

The process of dissolving table salt in water is a physical change. 食盐溶解于水的过程是物理变化。(介词宾语详见下文 E。)

We think it no use increasing resistance in the experiment. 我们认为在这个实验中增加电阻无用。(真正宾语。动名词短语作真正宾语很少见,只有当其宾语补语为上面注中那些词时才行。)

The children need looking after (或 caring for). 这些小孩需要照顾。(动词宾语。after 或 for 后缺位的宾语正好是句中主语,但不可写出。动词 need 后不可用动名词被动态结构,却可用不定式被动态结构作动词宾语。)

C. 作表语用;(下面三例不是进行时,其中 moving 转为形容词。)

Our greatest happiness is serving the people. 为人民服务是我们最大的幸福。

Our production task is making pagers. 我们的生产任务是制造寻呼机。

This piece of news is very moving. 这条新闻很感动人。

注:与上述现在分词 moving 类似的形容词还有;exciting(令人激动的),interesting(令人感兴趣的→有趣的),surprising(令人惊讶的→惊人的)等。显然,它们都是由及物动词的现在分词转化为形容词。理解时前后加“令人……的”即可,然后用合乎汉语习惯的言词表达。这不等于说任何及物动词都可这样转化为形容词。

D. -ing(现在分词)短语作状语用,含有时间、原因、让步、方式或伴随、结果等意义,但比较含蓄,只能根据上下文仔细琢磨。

Passing through a liquid or solid, sound is changed into heat. 声音通过液体或固体时,就转变为热。(时间状语)

The metal was cooled in the air, having been heated to a definite temperature in the furnace. 这种金属在炉子里加热到一定温度以后,就放在空气中冷却。(时间状语)

He is standing there, waiting for an assignment. 他正站在那边等待分配任务。(目的状语)

Not having done it, we tried again. 由于没有做成,我们就又试了。(原因状语。not 不能位于 having 后面。否定非谓语动词时,not 均应位于非谓语动词前面。)

We read the book sitting by the window. 我们坐在窗户旁边读书。(方式状语。siting 前无逗号,却不能理解为说明 book, 因此必须强调逻辑判别。)

Weighing 2,210 tons,the automatic forging press is operated by one worker only. 虽然自动锻压机重 2,210 吨,但只由一个工人操作。(让步状语)

We increase the length of the wire, thus (或 thereby) increasing its resistance. 我们增加导线的长度,从而增加了导线电阻。(thus 或 there by 后的 -ing 短语一般表示结果含义。)

Some students came running towards us. 几个学生朝着我们方向跑来。(方式状语)

Not knowing how to operate the pen computer, he asked Henry for help. 他不知如何操作这台笔控计算机,便请求亨利帮助。(原因状语)

Reducing the current, we can correspondingly decrease the speed of the motor. 如果减小电流,则电动机的转速就能相应减低。(条件状语)

He knew how to run the machine, having been a worker ten years. 他当了十年工人,才知道如何开动这台机器。(原因状语。现在分词短语的完成式虽在句末,其动作仍在谓语动词之前。)

The doctor, having felt your pulse, pronounced you better. 医生按了脉搏以后,断定你病已好转。(时间状语)

上述例句中,完成时的 -ing 表示其动作在主句动作之前已完成(见例句 2, 4, 11, 12),其余则和主句动词的动作差不多同时发生。注意本情况下 -ing 还有以被动态出现的形式(见例句 2),这时句中主语就是行为对象。-ing 作状语时,多半有逗号隔开,但有例外(见上面第 5, 8 句),故需逻辑判别。此外,注意作状语的分词短语一般位于句首或句末,但有时位于主、谓语中间。

E. -ing (动名词)短语作介词宾语用:

We use this tool for tightening bolts. 我们用这工具来旋紧螺栓。

Before starting the engine you should carefully clean and oil it. 在开动发动机之前,你应该把它仔细弄干净,并且上好润滑油。(注意 starting 的逻辑主体应该和句中主语有关。)

You succeeded in improving the housing conditions. 你们顺利地改善了住房条件。

We change air to a liquid by cooling and compressing it. 对空气冷却和压缩,我们可以使它变为液体。

After having been discussed the report was published. 这份报告在讨论完以后,就发表了。

Through being left out all night in the rain the metal had rusted. 由于这种金属整宵放在外边挨雨淋,它已经生锈了。

We did not speak of having seen this play. 我们没说过已看了这部戏。

On breaking the magnet into still shorter pieces we still get complete magnets. 把磁铁砸成更短小的碎块时,我们得到的仍然是一些完全的磁铁。

Did he feel sorry for not coming in time? 他对没有及时来感到遗憾吗?

Would you consider giving her another five minutes before giving up waiting for him altogether? 你是否考虑让她再等他五分钟,然后一起离开?(意译)

注意完成时表示形式(见例句 5、7)和被动态形式(见例句 5、6)。注意动名词的否定形式(见例句 9)。一般说来,作介词宾语的 -ing 短语仍须考虑与相应主语有协调的语态关系。若将上述第 2, 5 句分别改为 being started 和 discussing, 则句中主语就应作相应调整,使前后语态有一致的相应关系。

Ⅴ. -ing及其短语作定语用

(一) 按其位置,作定语的 -ing 有在所修饰的名词之前和之后两种:

A. -ing 在所修饰的名词之前

I have read a lot of interesting and exciting novels. 我读了许多有趣的和令人激动的小说。

That is a good-looking computer. 那是一台外形美观的计算机。

注 1:上述两个 -ing 已变为纯粹的形容词,已没有原来动词的特征。关于这一点可以通过查阅辞典得知。

We must test the device under operating conditions. 我们必须在操作条件下试验这个装置。

Without air a living thing will die. 没有空气,生物就会死。

The moving water and air have mechanical energy. 流动的水和空气都具有机械能。

注 2:当 -ing 的前面有冠词 a 或 the,而后面有所修饰的名词时,则 -ing 必是作定语用的(见例句 2,4,5)。但是这个规律不能逆推,如例句 1,3 中,前面什么冠词都没有,-ing 仍作定语用。

注 3:注意有动宾关系的 -ing 短语或“表示行为方式的名词 + -ing”短语作前置定语。例如:a metal cutting machine 一台金属切割机,the peace-loving people 热爱和平的人民,a high-speed heating furnace 一个高速加热炉,a hand riveting machine 一台手铆机等。

注 4:作前置定语的 -ing 短语允许用相应的副词修饰后面的 -ing。例如:a freely falling body一个自由落体,fast moving molecules 快速运动的分子等。

B. -ing 或其短语在所修饰的名词的后面

Matter is anything having weight and occupying space. 凡是物质,都具有重量和占有空间。

This is the ratio of oxygen reacting to water formed. 这就是参加反应的氧和生成的水之间的比。

The man working by the machine with the worker is a student. 在机器旁边和工人一起劳动的男人是一个学生。

The house being built will be our new laboratory. 正在建筑中的这所房子将是我们的新实验室。

This glass container, having a base of 80 cm2, is 15 cm high. 这只底面积为 80 厘米2 的玻璃容器高 15 厘米。(分译也可)

Henry and his friend, conversing earnestly together, ceased as you approached. 亨利和他的朋友在热诚地谈话,当你走过去时,他们便不谈了。

注 1. 现在分词短语作后置定语时,若短语前后有标点符号和其它成分隔开,则为非限制性定语。上面最后两句中的现在分词短语就作非限制性定语。这种定语可理解为非限制性定语从句的紧缩形式。上两句中相应展开的非限制性定语从句分别为:"which has a base of 80 cm2"和"who were conversing earnestly together"。这时前后逗号仍保留。

注 2:有时它不是作非限制性定语,而是作状语。这要靠上下文进行逻辑判别。只要不影响理解,这方面的差别不必过分注意。

(二) 根据被 -ing 所修饰的名词(指人、物)能否产生 -ing 所表示的动作来分,作定语的 -ing 有下列两种情况:

A. -ing 和它所修饰的名词有逻辑上的“主谓”关系,并以此表示所修饰名词的特征。这时 -ing 为现在分词。例如:

the working people 劳动人民

running water 流水

boiling water 沸水(正在开着的水)

freely falling body 自由落体

B. -ing 和所修饰的名词没有逻辑上的“主谓”关系。这时 -ing 为动名词,一般表示用途或表示与所修饰的名词有关的动作。例如:

drinking water 饮用水

a reading-room 阅览室

the boiling temperature 沸腾温度,沸点

the operating conditions 操作条件

a packing method 包装法

a writing desk 写字桌

Ⅵ. “the + -ing + of + 原动词的宾语”,这种结构中的 -ing 和名词一样,在句中可作各种成分用,后面还可以搭配原动词要求的介词短语。

The melting of iron requires a very high temperature. 铁的熔融需要一个很高的温度。

Oxidation means the combining of any material with oxygen. 氧化指的是任何物质和氧的化合。

The sudden heating of the air by lightning flashes causes thunder. 闪电对空气的突然加热,就引起了雷鸣。(这里用 by 引出 -ing 的行为发出者。)

从上述例句中不难看出,原动词的其它支配关系仍然可以保留(见例句 2,3 中的 with 和 by 短语)。但是修饰动词原来用的是副词,在本情况下改用形容词。

Ⅶ. “主语 + 感觉动词或 have(致使)等 + 宾语 + -ing”,句中 -ing(现在分词)作宾语补语用,即 -ing 起着宾语的“谓语”作用。

we saw the train coming towards the station.(当时)我们看见火车正朝着车站开过来。

Those conditions can't have you doing the experiment. 那些条件不能使你做这个实验。

Ⅶ. 注意“主语 + 动词 + 宾语 + as + -ing”结构,这里 -ing 作宾语补语用:

We showed these compounds as having different structures. 我们证明了这些化合物具有不同的结构。

They regard these experiments as being too simple for them. 他们以为这些实验对他们说来是太简单了。

We think of AB as being a straight line. 我们认为 AB 是一条直线。

注:上述第 2,3 句中 being 也可以省略。

Ⅸ. “主语 + 被动态谓语 + -ing”,这里 -ing 作主语补语。

This step of work is called testing a hypothesis. 这个工作步骤叫做对假说的验证。

He was seen taking pictures with a mini camera. 有人看见他用一架小型照相机在拍照。

Ⅹ. “主语 + 被动态谓语 + as + -ing”,这里 -ing 作主语补语。

Water can be shown as containing admixtures. 可以证明水含有杂质。

This automatic control instrument has been known as controlling the Production process. 大家都已知道,这个自动控制仪是控制生产过程的。

必须指出,当上述句型结构中 -ing 是 being 时,being 常可以省略。例如:

This may be taken as (being) a result of over heating. 这可以(被)当做是过热的结果。

More than one type of mistake may be thought of as (being) present. 可以认为存在着一种类型以上的错误。

注意,当这种类似结构出现在从句或在句中作某个成分的短语时,有时就不易判别。例如:

Only those substances which can be considered as being mixtures have a depressed melting point. 那些物质可以认为是混合物,只有它们才具有较低的熔点。

This method previously mentioned as affording good results, is widely used. 前面提到的能产生良好效果的这种方法,目前广泛采用。(由作定语的 mentioned 引出补语)

Ⅺ. -ing(动名词)出现前用形式主语或形式宾语 it 的两种情况:

It is no use only learning theories without practice. 只学理论而不实践是没有用的。

We think it necessary improving the production process. 我们认为改进生产过程是必要的。(形式宾语)

注:详见“It 用法和判别” 第 57 节。

Ⅻ. “when, while 等 + -ing(现在分词)”是个省略句形式,省略了与主句相同的主语和其相应的 be。例如:

While working in the plant, we learned a lot from the workers. 我们在工厂劳动期间,向工人学到了许多东西。

When being cooled from the red heat temperature, the steel reduced its capacity to dissolve carbon. 当钢从赤热温度冷却下来时,便降低了它的碳的溶解度。(意译)

The melting ice keeps the same temperature while melting. 融解的冰在融解时,温度保持不变。

Ⅷ. “名词 + -ing(动名词)”整个地作前置定语用:(注意下面 XIV、A 和 XV 区别开)

a pipe bending machine 弯管机

a gas welding machine 气焊机

a steam cooling system 蒸汽冷却系统

a self priming centrifugal pump 自吸离心泵

上述词组内,不可把 -ing 和后面的名词理解为现在分词短语来修饰 -ing 前的名词,而应把 -ing 理解为动名词,-ing 前的名词乃是 -ing 行为的对象(如1,3)或行为方式方法(如2,4)。同时必须注意与下面的 XN 用法区别开。

XIV. “名词或代词 + -ing”构成一种特殊的“主谓”关系,称为复合结构。这里一般有三种情况:

A. 带有 -ing 的独立分词结构

It being now pretty late, we took our candles and retired to our room. 天很晚了,我们就拿起蜡烛退回到房间。(表示原因)

There are many kinds of steel, each having its special uses in industry. 钢有多种,每种在工业上都有其特定用途。(表示伴随)

The group president coming in time, they will set out for Beijing at six o’clock. 如果集团总裁按时到来,他们就六点出发去北京。(表示条件)

Night falling, the children hurried home. 夜色降临,孩子们急忙回家。(表示原因)

Circumstances permitting, we shall begin to work tomorrow. 情况允许,我们明天就开始工作。(表示条件)

The question being settled, we all left the room. 问题解决之后,我们都离开了房间。(being 还可省略。)(表示时间)

He watched the soldiers pass, his eyes (being) bright and eager. 他双眼发亮,满怀激情,望着战士通过。(表示方式)

I stood out of doors, my hand (being) on his shoulder. 我站在室外,一只手搭在他的肩膀上。(表示伴随动作)

So the synthetic plastics industry was born, other chemists starting to synthesize many other useful plastics of a similar type. 于是合成塑料工业诞生,而其他化学家就开始合成相似类型的许多其它有用的塑料。(表示结果)

B. 复合结构作主语、宾语、介词宾语(含“物主代词 + -ing”作复合结构)

Some companies working together developed some new-type building materials. 几家公司协作,研制出一些新型的建筑材料。(复合结构作主语。)

Your going there won't help much. 你们去那边,不一定会有多少帮助。(主语)

We regretted him (或 his) misunderstanding us. 我们由于他误解了我们而感到遗憾。(复合结构或宾语)

Please excuse me (或 my) interrupting you. 请原谅我打扰您。(同上)

We heard about our teacher going (或 having gone) to Beijing. 我们听说我们的老师要去(或已经去)北京。(复合结构作介词宾语。)

a. You can count on her helping you. 你可以指望她来帮助你。(同上)

b. He insits on going there. 他坚持要去那里。(介词宾语。由于主语已经是 He,故不要在 going 前加 his。)

His expression was like that of a cat eyeing a cup of milk. 当时他的表情像一只猫盯着一杯牛奶那样。(同上。意译。句中 that 是代表前面的名词 expression。)

A steam engine gives us an example of heat being turned into work. 蒸汽机给了我们一个由热转变为功的例子。(介词宾语)

The explanation lies in the product (being) more stable. 这种解释在于这个产物是较为稳定的。(同上)

Coal was made by rocks pressing on trees and plants which died millions of years ago. 煤是岩石紧压千百万年以前死去的树木植物而形成的。(介词宾语)

Do you object to our helping him with his lessons. 你反对我们帮助他做功课吗?(介词宾语)

Do you mind me (或 my) closing the window? 你在乎我把窗户关上吗?(宾语)

Gases and liquids are perfectly elastic, after their being compressed they return to their original volume as soon as the applied force is removed. 气体和液体是很有弹性的。在它们受压缩以后,当施加的力一移走,它们就马上恢复原来的体积。(介词宾语)

His speech was very eloquent, to say nothing of its having been significant. 他的演讲很动听,而意味深长更不用说了。(介词宾语,但不定式短语 to say nothing of… 为插入语。)

C. 在 with without 后用“主谓”结构,表示伴随情况等,作状语。

Before 1949, the workers could hardly work with that noise going on. 1949 年前工人们在那种闹声持续下几乎不能工作。

With the side reaction preceding the reaction, the yields were very low. 反应前发生副反应,故产率很低。

With all the children being at home during the holidays, their mother has a great deal of work to do. 由于所有的小孩假期都呆在家里,母亲就有许多事要做。

One body never exerts a force on another without the second reacting against the first. 一个物体对另一个物体施加力,从来不会不受到后者的反作用力。

注:有时 with without 后用的 being, having been 还可省略。例如:With the experiments (having been) carried out, we started new investigations. 这些实验完成了,我们就开始了新的研究。

XV. 注意“名词或其词组 + -ing”用作报刊或一幅画等的标题:

Clinton visiting China. 克林顿正在中国访问

Premier Zhu talking with on old scientist. 朱总理和一位老科学家谈话

XⅥ. -ing 的名词化(上文 Ⅵ 中的 -ing 也可视为名词化)

Multiply the centigrade reading by 1.8 because 1℃ equals 1.8F. 将摄氏读数乘以1.8,因为 1℃ 等于 1.8T。

This is the meaning of Newton’s Third Law:there is always an equal reaction to every action. 这是牛顿第三定律的意义:对于每一个作用力总是有其大小相等的反作用力。

Calculate the unknowns in the following. …计算下面的未知数:……

We gave the classroom a good cleaning. 我们把教室好好地打扫了一下。

Synthesis is the putting together of chemical elements to form a compound. 合成是把化学元素放在一起以生成化合物。(putting 虽已名词化,但原动词的搭配关系,如 together 和 to form a compound 仍保留下来。关于这一点必须给予一定注意。)

XVII. 某些 -ing 作插入语用。这时,-ing 所表示的行为在句中没有逻辑的主语,可按固定的惯用语来记。

Generally speaking, this book is not difficult. 总的说来,这本书并不难。

Judging from what you say, he could have done this work still better. 从你说的话看来,他满可以把工作做得更好一些。

从上面两句可看出,speaking(说)和 judging(判断)的行为发生者不是句中主语。这是和 -ing 作状语不同的。此外,插入语前后一般都有逗号隔开。

Putting it mildly, she looked over your carelessness. 说婉转一些,她宽容了你的粗枝大叶。

Talking of this exam, will you be up with him? 至于这项考试,你会跟他不相上下吗?

XVIII. 某些 -ing 作介词用:

Inform us regarding (或 of) this matter. 将有关这件事的消息通知我们。

Very little is known concerning (或 about) these problems. 关于这些问题人们知道得很少。

Considering his age, he has done very well. 就他的年龄而论,他已做得非常好。

He has done very well, considering (that) he has no experience. 像他这样没有经验,算是做得不错了。(意译。介词 considering 接一个介词宾语从句。)

注:参阅第 139 节 Ⅷ。

XIX. 某些 -ing 转化为从句的连词

Supposing (that) I see him, what shall I tell him? 假如我见到他,我将告诉他什么呢?(条件从句)

Seeing (that) you have come, we will settle this problem together with you now. 由于你来了,我们现在就和你一起解决这个问题。(原因从句)

Not with standing (that) it was raining, we went for a mall-walk. 尽管下雨,我们还是去商场游逛了。(让步从句)

Granting that this is true (或 Granting that to be true)’ how does it answer your argument? 就算那是事实,又怎样解释你的论据呢?(让步从句)

XX. -ing 短语作同位语:

Now compare the work done lifting the cart with the work done pulling it up the inclined plane. 现将提升车子所作的功和沿着斜面拉车上来所作的功进行比较。(句中 done 为 work 的后置定语,两个动名词短语作同位语。)

This substance is splitting up, or decomposing, into many useful products. 这种物质正在分裂,即正在分解为许多有用的产物。(句中现在分词 decomposing 作 splitting up 的同位语。)

二、-ing 用法的判别

I. -ing 语法功用的初步综合比较:(以 cutting metal 为例)

Cutting metal is no simple operation. 金属切削并非简单的操作。(主语)

We are cutting metal. 我们正在切削金属。(组成谓语部分,和 are 构成现在进行时。)

One of the important uses of this machine tool is cutting metal. 这种机床的重要用途之一是切削金属。(表语)

The worker stopped cutting metal. 那个工人停止了金属切削。(宾语)

We saw many workers cutting metal. 我们看见许多工人在切削金属。(宾语补语)

They were found cutting metal in the workshop. 有人发现他们在车间切削金属。(主语补语)

This lathe is used for cutting metal. 这台机床是供切削金属用的。(介词 for 的宾语)

Before cutting metal you should carefully clean the machine. 切削金属前,你必须仔细地把机器清理干净。(介词 before 的宾语)

The student cutting metal in the workshop works very hard. 在车间切削金属的那位学生工作很努力。(后置定语)

Cutting metal, the workers are very careful. 切削金属时,工人们是非常谨慎的。(时间状语)

While cutting metal, the workers don't talk with each other. 工人们在切削金属时不相互交谈。(cutting 前省略“ the workers are”,故 cutting 是谓语组成部分。)

There are lots of metal cutting machines in our plant. 我们厂里有许多金属切割机床。(定语)

上述 12 句中 cutting metal 总是作“金属切削”或“切削金属”讲,但在不同上下文和搭配关系中就起着不同的语法作用。它在第 1,3,4,7,8,12 句中顶作名词用,故为动名词;它在其余句中作现在分词。这里关键在于 -ing 短语处于何种位置和与哪些词搭配。

II. 对于 -ing 作状语、独立分词结构和插入语的判别

-ing 在句中作状语,其动作发生者和句中主语是一致的,或也是一种主谓关系(见本节、一、Ⅳ-D 各例句)。但在独立分词结构中必有 -ing 的行为发生者,并位于 -ing 前面(见本节、一、ⅪV-A)。只有当 there is 结构改成独立分词结构时,主语才在 -ing 后面:

The car stopped, there being no fuel in the tank. 因为油箱内没有燃料,车子停了。

The rain having stopped, we resumed the game. 雨停了,我们就恢复比赛。

插入语与上述两种结构的差别在于插入语的 -ing 行为发生者在句中找不到。它一般用来表示作者对句中所表达意思的态度。插入语前后一般有逗号隔开(见本节、一、 XVI)。

III. 现在分词短语作时间状语时,如果其动作一发生,谓语动作立即随之发生,则该现在分词可用其一般式作状语,并常置于句首。例如:

Arriving at the station, he found the train had left. 他到达车站就发现火车已开走。

All preparations made, we started the experiment. 一切准备就绪,我们就开始做实验。(可以理解为 made 前省略 having been。但当动作紧凑时,常省略 having been。)

Ⅳ. 句末“(thus 或 there by)+ -ing”结构常作结果状语。例如:

They did not have the courage to admit the limited aspect of their own advantages, thus (或there by) suppressing another aspect of the truth. 他们没有勇气承认自己长处的有限性,因而抹杀了真理的另一方面。

Ⅴ. 注意由 -ing 带来的一系列复杂关系

A. 由 -ing 引出从句

We stand by the lathe watching how it is operated. 我们站在车床旁边,看着车床是如何操作的。(作状语的现在分词 watching 引出宾语从句。)

We use insulators to prevent electrical charges from going where they are not wanted. 我们用绝缘体来防止电荷流到不需要电荷的地方去。(动名词 going 作介词 from 的宾语,本身又引出地点状语从句。)

Because mixtures vary in composition, there must be a way of telling how much solute is present in a solution. 由于混合物的组成可以变化,所以一定要有一个能说明溶液中有多少溶质存在的鉴别法。(动名词 telling 引出宾语从句。)

A simplified reaction showing what happens in the process is given below. 简化反应式表明过程中发生什么,可见下式所示。(现在分词 showing 作后置定语,本身又引出宾语从句。)

A current of 1 ampere flowing when the potential difference is 1 volt is 1 watt of power. 当电位差为 1 伏时流过 1 安培电流,其功率为 1 瓦。(状语从句,说明现在分词 flowing,而 flowing 本身为后置定语。)

Holding a load while you are standing still is not work. 当你站着不动时拿着一个负载,这不是作功。(状语从句,说明动名词 holding。)

One of the ways is by distillation, which involves heating the solution until the pure water evaporates. 其中一种方法是采用蒸馏。蒸馏是将溶液加热,直到纯水蒸发出来。(状语从句,说明动名词短语 heating the solution。)

These changes are quite important in understanding why gases are turned into liquids. 这些变化对于理解气体为何变成液体是很重要的。(动名词引出宾语从句。)

B. -ing 前面的名词不是行为发出者,而是行为的对象或行为的方式方法

an oil feeding system 给油系统(行为对象)

the peace-loving people 热爱和平的人民(行为对象)

a hand milling machine 手铣机(行为方法)

a high speed milling machine 高速铣床(行为方式)

In a modern coal burning electric generating plant the steam maybe hot enough to ignite wood. 在一个烧煤的现代化(火力)发电厂内,蒸汽也许能热到足以把木头点燃起来。(行为对象)

上述 -ing 均为动名词或现在分词,而对它的行为对象和行为方式方法的判别,只能根据逻辑意义来判别。

Ⅵ. -ing(动名词)和动词不定式用于类似句子中时的重要区别

A. 跟动词不定式相比,-ing 所表示的含义是一般的和抽象的。例如:

a. I like reading newspapers. 我喜欢看报。(宾语表示爱好和习惯动作。)

b. I’d like to read our netnews today. 今天我愿意读我们的网络新闻。(宾语。某一时间的一次动作。)

a. As a rule, he prefers walking in the evening. 他通常宁肯晚上散步。(动名词短语作宾语,表示习惯性动作。)

b. She prefers to go this evening. 她宁肯今晚走。(宾语。一次动作)

由于 -ing 所表示的动作是一般的和抽象的,所以有时甚至可以变为泛指,不限于指句中某人或物所发出的行为。例如:Our teachers always pay attention to combining theory with practice. 我们的教师经常注意理论结合实际。(介词 to 的宾语)上句表明:除了他们本人在讲课中经常注意理论结合实际以外,同时也注意学生理论结合实际情况。

B. 在 forget (忘记),remember (记得),stop (停止)等词后面的动词不定式和 -ing 动名词所表示的意义不同:

a. He forgot writing (或 having written) the letter. 他忘记了写过那封信。(宾语。事实上他过去已写了那封信。)

b. He forgot to write the letter. 他忘记了(去)写那封信。(宾语。事实上他还没写信呢!)

a. The object stops moving. 该物体停止运动。(宾语)

b. He stopped to look at his watch. 他停下来看一下表。(目的状语)

a. He tried raising rabbits in the countryside. 他当时在乡下试验养兔子。

b. She tried to raise rabbits, but never put it into practice. 那时她试图养兔,但没有付诸实施。

a. I regretted telling you the truth. 我后悔告诉了你真相。

b. She regretted to tell you the truth. 那时她遗憾地要告诉你真相。

a. Please go on reading the text. 请接着继续念课文。

b. Then I went on to write a letter. 后来我接着改为去写信。

a. I remember going there two years ago. 我记得两年前到那边去了。

b. He must remember to send the video mail. 他必须记住把这个语音邮件发出去。

注:对于 endure, bear 等少数动词而言,用 -ing 或不定式短语时意思差不多。

1)She didn't endure seeing(或 to see)such animals cruelly treated. 那时她不忍去看这样一些动物受到残酷对待。

2)I can't bear being (或 to be) laughed at. 我不能忍受被别人取笑。

C. 动词 go 后的动作若为表示运动游戏的非谓语动词,则一般用现在分词,而不用不定式。

He went dancing(或 swimming, playing basketball). 他去跳舞(或游泳、打篮球)了。

They want to go fishing (或 shopping). 他们想去钓鱼(或买东西)。

D. begin 和 start 用于进行时态时,后面所接的非谓语动词只能用不定式

It is starting to snow. 要开始下雪。

The water in the kettle was beginning to boil. 那时水壶里的水正开始沸腾(或煮开)。

Inside 和 Outside 的用法

一、介词 inside 和 outside 分别作“在……里面”和“在……外面”讲,既可用于表示地点,又可表示界限、领域、范围等

Wait inside(outside)the office 在办公室内(或外)等待;

Take a trip inside(或 outside)the country 在国内(或国外)旅行;

Live (或 stay) somewhere inside (或 outside) the city of Tianjin 住(或呆)在天津市内(或市外)某处;

Sit on a bench inside (或 outside) the garden 坐在花园内(或外)的一张长凳上;

Be inside (或 outside) sb.’s field(这个问题)是在某人的专业范围内(或外);

Lie inside (或 outside) sb.’s power to help you(这件事)是在某人有能力帮助你的范目内(或外),be inside (或 outside) the range of the college students’ vocabulary(这些词)属于(或超出)大学生词汇量范围;

Be a child born inside (或 outside) marriage(他)是婚内(或外)生的小孩等

二、介词 inside 和 outside 跟有关动词搭配作“往里…”或“往外…”讲。

Come inside the information center 来到信息中心里面;

Go outside the computer center 往计算中心外面走;

Look inside the club 往俱乐部内看;

Run outside the classroom 往教室外跑等

三、注意美国英语还可用 inside of… 和 outside of… 分别表示“时间、距离在……内或不足……”以及“在……外面或在……附近”的用法

Walk inside of a mile 走路不足一英里;

Will be back inside of an hour(她)将在一小时内回来;

Sleep outside of the room(猫)在室外睡觉;

Live outside of Shanghai 住在上海附近;

Be not conscious of anything outside of the school(她)对校外的事一无所知;

Act outside of the law(他)行动违法等

四、同时注意 outside 和美国英语 outside of 单独在句中作“除了…以外”讲

Outside (of) Jenney, there is no one who can take over this task. 除了詹妮,没人能承担这个任务。

He has no hobbies outside (of) gardening. 除园艺外,他没有什么嗜好。

五、注意副词 inside 和 outside 的用法

They went inside (或 outside). 他们往里(往外)走了。

Lisa is just inside (或 outside). 莉萨正好在里面(或在外面)。

Don't look inside (或 outside). 不要往里面(或外面)看。

The boy put his socks on inside out. 这男孩把短袜穿反了。

六、注意名词 inside 和 outside 作“内部”和“外部”讲

The steam condensed on the outside of the cold tubes. 水蒸汽冷凝在冷管子的外表面上。

The hot vapour comes from the inside of the container. 热蒸汽来自容器内部。

七、形容词 inside 和 outside 分别作“内部的”和“外部的”讲

An inside (或 outside) diameter 内径(或外径);

Inside information 内部情报;

Outside work 室外工作等

Instead of和 In place of 的用法

一、instead of(复合介词)作“代替”、“而不是”讲

注意这个复合介词后面不仅可接名词、代词,甚至可接形容词、副词、动词和介词短语。例如:

We may use this substance instead of soap. 我们可以用这种物质代替肥皂。(可用 in place of 代。)

下列各句里的 instead of… 含有连接词作用;翻译时,可译为“而不是…”等意思。

Production increases quickly instead of slowly. 生产增加很快,而不是很慢。(相当于:…quickly, but not slowly.)

When water freezes, it becomes larger in volume instead of smaller. 水冻结时,它体积是变得更大,而不是更小。(相当于:…volume, but not smaller.)

On freezing water expands instead of contracts. 水在结冰时膨胀,而不收缩。(相当于:…expands,but does not contract.)

At high altitudes, the air pressure is low, so that water will boil at temperatures below instead of at 100℃. 在海拔高处,气压很低,所以水的沸点是摄氏一百度以下,而不是一百度。(相当于:…below 100℃, but not at it.)

Making this experiment, add a little dilute instead of concentrated sulfuricacid. 做这个实验时,加上少量稀硫酸,而不是加浓硫酸。(可用 in place of 代。相当于 …dilute, but not concentrated sulfuricacid. )

二、副词 instead 用法举例

The watt is a small unit of power so (that) we use the kilowatt instead. 瓦特是功率的小单位,因此我们使用千瓦代之。

三、in place of(复合介词)作“代替” (= instead of) 讲

It is generally agreed that we may use a computer in place of this device. 一般认为,我们可以用一台计算机代替这个装置。(可用 instead of 代替)

It 的用法和判别

一、It 的基本用法

I. it 作人称代词,通常代替无生命的东西或前面所谈的事情或情况:

Aluminium looks heavy but actually it is very light. 铝看起来重,但实际上(它)却很轻。

The switch completes the circuit when you close it. 当你合闸时,电闸把电路接通了。

This plan is without controversy the best. We must make a careful study of it. 这个计划无可争辩地是最好的,我们必须仔细研究(它)。

Most birds can fly, and their structure shows it. 大多数鸟能飞,它们的身体结构也表明了这一点。

It is the third time (that) John has been late, isn't it? 这是约翰第三次迟到,是吧?(反意疑问句)

注 1:英语代词比汉语代词用得多。英译汉时常可重复代词所代的名词(如第2句),有时甚至可以不译(如第 1, 3 句)。

注 2:It 有时可代表有生命的 baby, child 等,因为这些词并未明确表示性别,故只好用 it 和 its 作其代词. 例如:I saw your daughter and her baby yesterday. I didn't know whether it is a boy or a girl. 昨天我见到了你的女儿及她的婴孩。我(当时)不知道这婴孩是男孩还是女孩。

II. it 起着指示代词 this 和 that 的作用:

It is a very good translation. 这是一篇很好的译文。

We must overfulfil our production plan. It is our task. 我们必须超额完成生产计划。这就是我们的任务。(it 代表前句整个意思)

III. it 指季节、时间、距离(包括一些物理量)、自然现象和环境情况:

It is early spring. 这是早春季节。

It is very cold today. 今天很冷。

It is half past 5 o’cock. 五点半了。

It is ten miles to our plant. 到我们工厂有10英里距离。

It is five cubic metres in volume. 体积是5立方米。

It is sixty grams in mass. 质量是60克。

It is very quiet (或 noisy) in the classroom. 教室里很安静(或很闹)。

It rained (或 snowed) last night. 昨夜下雨(或下雪)了。

It is blowing hard. 现正在刮大风。

With automation, it is quite different. 有了自动化,情况就全然不同了。(it 表示情况。)

Ⅳ. it 作先行代词用。it 先在句中充当形式主语或形式宾语,而将真正的和逻辑上的主语或宾语(通常用不定式短语、动名词短语或从句表示之)移到后面去。例如:

A. it 作形式主语:

It is our duty to help him. 帮助他是我们的职责。

It was wrong of you not to help her. 你当时不帮助她是错误的。

It takes much time to carry out a test. 进行试验是要花费许多时间的。

It will be useless learning a theory without practice. 学习理论而没有实践是无用的。

注:关于动名词短语作真正主语的用法,主要看表语使用哪些词。可参阅第 54 节、Ⅳ-A 的第二个注。

How much does it cost to send a telegraph? 打一份电报花费多少钱?

It was necessary that the metal should melt at a low temperature. 当时那种金属有必要在低温下熔化。

It may surprise you to know that many metals were used as early as 1,000 B.C. 要是你知道早在公元前一千年就使用了许多金属,你也许会感到惊奇。

It is obvious that metals in common use are very important in our life. 显然,普遍使用的金属在我们生活中是很重要的。

It has been pointed out that their suggestion is reasonable to a certain degree. 已经指出,他们的建议在某种程度上是合理的。

How did it come about that you made a lot of mistakes in your homework? 你作业里出了很多错,怎么搞的?

It matters little who will do that. 谁去做那件事,关系倒不大。

B. it 作形式宾语:

(a) it 在某些动词后作直接宾语的先行代词;在具有宾语补语的句子里,在宾语补语后面再出现真正的直接宾语(一般以不定式短语、动名词短语表示之,但也有用 that 引出一个宾语从句)。上述某些动词系指:think, consider, feel, regard, find, tell, make, take, have(声称)等。

We consider it necessary to combine theory with practice. 我们认为理论联系实际是必要的。

We found it useless learning a theory without practice. 我们认为学习理论而没有实践是无用的。

We have made it clear that agriculture is the foundation of the national economy. 我们已说清楚了,农业是国民经济的基础。

I feel it an honour to be asked to speak here. 我应邀在此讲话,感到很荣幸。

We think it important that theory (should) be combined with practice. 我们认为,理论结合实际是重要的。(it 作宾语从句的先行代词.)

They have it that Mr.Wang is going to Beijing next week. 他们宣称王先生下周准备去北京。

They will leave it to you to decide. 他们要让你去决定。

I regard it as preferable that she should study here. 我认为她在这里学习更好。(it 作后面宾语从句的先行代词,as preferable 为宾语补语。)

May I take it that you will write me a letter? 我可以相信你会给我写信吧?(it 作 that 引出的宾语从句的先行代词。)先行代词

(b) it 先在介词后占介词宾语的位置,然后通过 that 引出一个介词宾语从句:

We will answer for it that this test is reliable. 我们愿意保证这项试验是可靠的。

You may depend upon it that they will support you. 你相信好了,他们会支持你的。

Don't worry. I’ll see to it that you’ll get your share. 别着急。我一定保证使你获得你名下的份额。

C. 科技文章中常见的 it 作从句的先行代词时的固定句型举例:

It is clear (或 obvious) that… 很清楚,…;

It must be admitted that… 必须承认…;

It appears (或 seems) that… 看来…,似乎…;

It is stated (或 said) that… 据说(或一般认为)…;

It is to be noted that…要注意…;

It is well known that… 众所周知…;

It happened that… 碰巧…;

It is certain that… 肯定的是…[不能用sure代替];

It is doubtful that… 人们怀疑的是…;

It was surprising (或 amazing, astonishing) that…(当时)令人惊讶的是…;

It is estimated that… 据估计…;

It is found that… 人们发现…;

It will (或 can) be seen from this that… 由此可见…;

It follows that… 从而或这样一来(于是)…;

It became clear (或 obvious) that… 显然,…等

Ⅴ. It 用于加强语气。其句型是“It is (或 was)… that(强调人时也可用 who 或 whom)…。有时强调事物,也可用 which 代替 that. 但强调状语和状语从句时,只能用 that。

A. 强调主语:

It was the soldiers who saved many people from drowning in 1998. 在 1998 年正是这些战士拯救了许多人免于淹死。

It was Jenny and Linda who laid many suggestions before the commitee. 正是詹妮和琳达向委员会提出了许多建议。

It was they whom you praised for their spirit of the age. 当时你表扬的正是他们的时代精神。(意译。注意不要将 they 改为 them.)

B. 强凋宾语:

It is this molecular motion that we call heat. 就是这种分子运动我们称之为热。

It was the mobile phone which (或 that) I bought in Tianjin. 那时我在天津买的正是这个移动电话.

C. 强调状语或状语从句:

[原句] After 1978 their families began a new life. 1978 年以后,他们的家庭开始了新的生活。

[强调句] It was after 1978 that their families began a new life. 正是在 1978 年以后,他们的家庭开始了新的生活。(强调时间状语)

[强调句] It is in the information center that we work together with the programmers. 就是在这个信息中心内,我们同程序员一起工作。(强调地点状语)

It is not for their personal interests that they study hard. 他们不是为了个人利益才努力学习的。(强调目的状语的否定式,而原句是通过否定谓语来表示对状语的否定。)

It was to save a child from drowning that we parted with you。为救起溺水的小孩,我们才离开了你。(强调作目的状语用的不定式短语)

It was with some difficulty that he found the answer to his problem. 他费了不少劲,才找到了这个题的答案。(强调行为方式状语)

It is not to anybody that (或 whom) he lends his books. 他并不是把他的书对任何人都出借的。(强调状语)

It is only when the people have become masters of their own country that they can really live a happy life. 只有当人民当了国家的主人以后,他们才能真正地过幸福的生活。(强调时间状语从句)

It is because English is very useful that we study it hard. 正因为英语很有 用,我们才努力学习(英语)。(强调原因状语从句)

It was through (或 because of) his carelessness that his key was lost. 他的钥匙丢失正是由于他的粗心。(强调原因状语)

It was while reading her letter that I had the idea that I was going to visit her the next day. 正是在读她的来信时,我就萌发第二天就去访问她的念头。(强调有省略成份的时间状语从句)

It is the atmosphere that gives us life and protection and that warms and shields us by night from the terrible cold of outer space. 正是这个大气层给了我们生命和保护,也正是它使我们感到暖和并在夜里使我们免受来自外部空间的严寒侵袭。(被强调的词后接两个由 that 引出的从句。)

D. 固定的强调句型:“It was not until(或till)…that…,”之意为“直到……才……“。例如:

It was not until 1972 that we began studying English. 直到 1972 年我们才开始学英语。

It was not till evening that we took priority over them. 我们到晚上才比他们领先。

It was not until the teacher came that they began the test. 直到老师来了以后,他们才开始做这个实验。

E. 注意强调句型的疑问句词序和强调状语从句中的关联词时的词序

Who was it (that) came to see you yesterday? 是谁昨天来看你啦?(强调原句中主语。因 Who 是疑问词,按特殊疑问句规定,就置于句首。强调句型中的 it was 也按特殊疑问句规定,颠倒为 was it. 后面部分和原强调句后面部分一样,维持原状,只是句末加个问号。)

What was it that you found in the room last week? 上星期你在房间里找到的是什么啊?

When was it that he paid six yuan for a dictionary? 他花了六元钱买了一本辞典是什么时候啊?

How is it that they are late? 他们怎么会迟到的?

注:如果本句型用于名词从句,则其中 it is (或 was) 不颠倒:

1)I wonder who it was (that) first called computers electronic brains. 我不知道谁首先把计算机叫做电脑。(句中 who 是疑问词,但句子不是疑问句,故 it was 不颠倒词序。注意这种强调句型中还可省略 that。)

2)She couldn't say what it was that bothered her. 她说不出是什么打扰了她。(同上)

3)Whatever (news) it is that you have heard of, you must tell him in time. 不论你听到的是什么(消息),你必须及时告诉他。

Ⅵ. it 用于“It is a + 形容词 + 名词 + that…”特殊的习惯用法中,真正的句意与字面相反,可能是修辞性反语发展起来的一种句式。它具有含蓄的让步意味,大多译为:“无论怎样……的……也不会……”。例如:

It is a wise man that never makes mistakes. 无论怎样聪明的人,也难免要犯错误。(不能按字面译为强调句型:※聪明的人才从来不犯错误。)

It is a long lane that has no turning. 无论怎样长的胡同,也会有拐弯的地方。(不能按字面译为强调句型:※长的胡同才不拐弯。)

It is a wise father that knows his own child. 无论怎样聪明的父亲,也不会完全了解自己的孩子。(不能按字面译成强调句型:※聪明的父亲才了解他自己的孩子。)

二、It 的用法和判別

Ⅰ. 如果 it 是人称代词,一般是代替前面的单数名词。只有在极少数情况下,代词 it 在前,所代的名词却在后面,例如:

Although we cannot see it, there is air all around us. 虽然我们看不见空气,但在我们周围都有空气。

II. It 作非人称代词,其后面内容都是表示自然现象、时间、度量衡等。

III. 如果是强调句型,则去掉“It is (或was)… that (或 who, whom, which)…” 三个词以后,剩下的词仍能单独组成一个完整句子。it 后的谓语是其它形式时,决不能构成强调句型。例如:

It is from the sun that we get light and heat. 正是从太阳那里我们得到了光和热。(强调句型)

It is known that matter is in constant motion. 大家知道,物质处于不断的运动中。(非强调句型,后面为主语从句。)

It has been found that all kinds of matter consist of atoms. 人们已经发现,各种物质由原子组成。(同上,后面为主语从句。)

上述第 1 句中去掉 "It is… that" 三个词以后,剩下部分仍能构成一个句子,故是强调句型。但第 2 句中按上法去掉 "It is…that…" 三个词,句中 known 就没法处理了。第 3 句谓语不是 is 或 was, 故决不是强调句型。

It is those who have never been to college but who are sending or hope to send, their children to college, who are much interested in what is going on at university campuses. 正是那些自己没有上过大学而目前正在送其子女上大学或希望送子女上大学的人才对大学校园内发生的事很感兴趣。(句中头两个 who 引出的是前后在意义上有转折的定语从句,第三个 who 才和句首的 It is those 构成强调句型。

Ⅳ. It 作形式主语或形式宾语,其后面必有一个真正主语或真正宾语。一般用不定式短语、动名词短语或用 that 引导的从句来作真正主语或真正宾语。

Least(包括作“最不…”讲)的用法

一、least 是 little(小;少)的最高级,作形容词或副词用

Silver has the least resistance of the metals. 在这些金属中间,银的电阻最小。(句中 least 为形容词最高级,而 of… 表示比较范围。)

He likes that raincoat least of all. 他最不喜欢那件雨衣。( of 用法同上。但 least 为副词。)

It happened just when I least expected it. 那件事就在我最没有想到的时候发生了。

二、“least + 形容词或副词”构成劣等最高级,作“最不……”讲

This is the least expensive method. 这是最不费钱的方法。

These motors operate least noisily. 这些电动机运转时的噪音最小。

She has not the least experience. 她毫无经验。(注意 not the least… 作“丝毫无…”讲,由“连最少的…都没有”引申过来。)

三、名词 least 及其常用词组用法举例

A has little, B has less, and C has (the) least. 甲没有多少,乙更少,而丙最少。

He is not in the least touched. 他一点也未被碰伤。

At (the) least, it costs 5 pounds (= It costs at least 5 pounds). 至少这值5英镑。

You should at least tell me. 你至少应该告诉我。

I have done thus and so, to say the least of it. 至少可以这样说(或退一步说),我已如此这般做了。(斜体字为插入语。)

Less(包括作“较不…”讲)的用法

一、less 是 little(小;少)的比较级

He spends less time (in) doing experiments. 他做实验花时间较少。

Such problems are of less importance. 这样一些问题比较不重要。

The value of Y is no less than ten. Y 值不止 10。(本义为“决不小于 10”,表示多的意思。)

The power is not less than 15 h. p. 功率不小于 15 匹马力。

She says less but does more. 她说话较少,但做事较多。

Negative figures are figures less than zero. 负数就是比零小的数。(斜体字部分为形容词短语作后置定语。)

We regard her less as our teacher than as our friend. 我们把她看作我们的朋友,胜过我们把她看作我们的老师。

He does not study English the less for its difficulty. 他并不因为英语难学就不想学了。(原义为:他不因为英语难而不怎么学。)

二、“less + 形容词或副词”构成劣等比较,作“较不…”讲

It is less warm than (it was) last week. 天气不如上周那样暖和。

He studies English less hard than before. 他学英语不如以前那样努力。

三、“no less + 形容词或副词”本义为“绝不+有关形容词或副词的反义词”。

No less small 绝不大(这里 small 的反义词为“大”),no less slowly 绝不快,no less long 绝不短等

A boat race is different from a horse race but no less exciting. 赛船不同于赛马,但决不逊色。

Last year he studied very hard. Now he studies no less hard. 去年他学习很努力。现在他学习也绝不差劲。

四、less 作名词用,表示“较少量”、“较少数”之意

They designed a couple of new-type air conditioners in less than a year. 他们用不到一年的时间设计了两台新型空调器。

Less than ten of the thermometers remain. 这些温度计剩下来的不到十支。

五、less 作介词,当“不足”、“还差”讲

Five less two leaves three. 五减去二余三。

The time cycle is a year less three days.(时间)周期等于一年差三天。

The voltage across RB is equal to VB less VA. 加在 RB 上的电压等于 VB 减去 VA。

六、带有 less 的一些常用词组用法举例

a. He will be studying more or less a week. 他将学习一星期左右。

b. It’s more or less a mistake, really. 说真的,这多少是个错误。

c. We can learn more or less according as we study and work. 根据学习和 工作情况,我们可以学得多一点或少一点。

d. It is neither more nor less a lie. 那是十足的谎言。(斜体字部分原义是“不多也不少”。)

I speak no English, much less (或 still less) Spanish. 我不会讲英语,更不用说西班牙语了。(注意只用于否定句。第二部分也可改用下列三个短语中的任一个短语:to say nothing of Spanish, not to speak of Spanish 或 not to mention Spanish.)

注 1:在肯定句中要用 more 代替其中的 less。例如:I like chemistry, much more (或 still more) physics. 我喜欢化学,而更喜欢物理。

He has fault, but we help him none the less (或 no less). 尽管他有缺点,我们还是(或仍旧)帮助他。

We expect nothing less than a good harvest. 大丰收正是我们盼望的。

Although he met with some difficulties, he was none the less sure of his success. 尽管碰到一些困难,但他依然坚信他会成功。

They will be back in less than no time. 他们将马上回来。

注 2:最后再强调一点:lesser 不是 little 的比较级。little(形容词兼副词)的比较级应该用 less。但 lesser(“较小的”、“次要的”)大多用作定语。例如:a lesser river(小河),a lesser nation(小国)等。lesser 也可用以修饰形容词。例如:a lesser-known modern poet(一位名望较小的现代诗人)等。

Lest, In case 和 For fear that 引出从句的用法

一、连词 lest 引出消极的目的状语从句,谓语中包含 should(体现虚拟语气),并且还可省略

We’ll have to use a new-type computer lest the production (should) be out of order. 我们将不得不使用新型计算机,免得生产发生故障。

He must run fast lest he (should) miss the train. 他必须快跑,免得赶不上火车。

二、可用 for fear that 和 in case 等来代替 lest

He locked up the document for fear that it (should) be stolen. 他把文件锁好了,免得被窃。(也可用 lest 代之。)

You don't make a noise in case you (should) wake them. 你们别闹,免得惊醒他们。

Take care lest you (should) fall. 当心不要跌倒。(也可用 Take care in order not to fall 或 Take care so as not to fall 代替。)

注意 lest 多用于书面语中,文体较古些。for fear that 比较通俗。口语中常用 in case 代替 lest。它们各自带的目的状语从句中一般都用 should 表示虚拟语气,并且这个 should 往往还可省略。

三、lest 用于 fear, afraid, worried 等词后连接一个从句

I am afraid (或 worried) lest (= that) he should get here too late. 我怕(或担心)他到达这里太晚。(还可用 in (mortal) fear 代替 afraid。)

By the end of 1956 she had waited for you ten years in sore fear lest you had died. 到 1956 年底,她已经等了你十年之久,生怕你已死去。

Like 的搭配用法

一、动词 like 作“喜欢”、“喜爱”讲

I like this type of computer best. 我最喜欢这种型式的计算机。

we would like to visit your special economic zone. 我们很愿意访问你们的经济特区。

二、介词 like 作“像…”、“跟…一样”讲

Act(或 do, study, work)like that(他将)那样行动(或做、学习、工作);

Look like…(他)看上去像(一个老头即 an old man),(他们)看样子要(赢即 winning);

It looks like rain (或 snow). 看来要下雨(或雪)。

These patients look more like themselves again. 这些病人看来恢复健康。

Feel like going to the cinema(她)想要去看电影;

It feels like some kind of metal. 它摸起来像是某种金属。

Sound like…(你)说话声音像(你的父亲即 your father);

Taste like…(它)味道像(牛奶即 milk);

His optical computer is like mine. 他的光计算机和我的很相像。

What is the weather (或 room 等) like? 天气(或房间等)怎样?

She studies hard Subjects like mathematics, chemistry, physics and English. 她努力学习像数学、化学、物理和英语那样一些课程。

三、形容词 like 作“相像的、相似的”讲

Be very like(你和他)长相很像,(这两幢房子)很相似;

Get a like amount of… 得到相同数量的(牛奶、面包即 milk and bread 等);

Work under like conditions 在同样条件下工作等

注:副词 like(后接数量,多半表示“近乎”、“差不多”含义。例如:The patient has been up for like six days. 该病人起床下地差不多有六天了。

四、名词 like 作“同样的东西”、“同类的事情”讲

We did not hear the like of it from that time on. 从那时起我们没有听见过同类的事情。

They will never do the like again. 他们将不再那样搞了。

It is the atoms that make up iron, water, oxygen and the like (或 and other 或 and other things)是原子构成了铁、水、氧等。(原义为“…氧和诸如此类的其它东西”。)

五、连词 like 作“如同”、“好像”讲

Waves in water move like the waveform moves along a rope. 波在水中移动就像波形沿着绳子移动一样。

It is hot like in midsummer. 天热得像在大伏天那样。(like 后为一省略句,省略了 it is hot。)

Little 和 A Little 以及 Few 和 A Few 用法差异

一、little 作“少量”讲。它和 a little 都可用于不可数名词,作定语、宾语、程度状语。a little 表示肯定意义,意思是“一些”;little 表示否定意义,意思是“很少”、“没有多少”、“几乎没有”

a. There is a little water there. 那儿有一些水。(定语)

b. There is little water there. 那儿没有多少水。(定语。表示“几乎没有”。)

a. He knows a little (或 quit a little) about the plan. 关于这个计划,他略有所知(或“…他知道不少”)。(宾语)

b. James says little but does much. 詹姆士说得少,干得多。(宾语)

a. The pager is a little better than that one. 这个寻呼机比那个好一些。(程度状语)

b. This portable phone is little better than that one. 这个手机(或移动电话)并不比那个好多少。(程度状语)

c. This problem has been little studied. 这个问题几乎没有研究过。(程度状语)

d. She slept very little last night. 她昨晚睡得很少。(状语)

Little is know at present about this reaction. 关于这个反应目前几乎没有什么了解。(主语。若主语改用 A little,则句义就变为“…有所了解”。)

二、(主语)little 算否定词,用于反义疑问句时,注意前后谓语一负一正的相互关系。作状语用于句首时,后面主、谓语要颠倒

There is little water in the thermos flask, is there? 热水瓶里没有水,是不是?(句末不能用 "isn’t there")

Little does he care whether rabbits live or die. 他极少关心兔子的死活。(倒装语序)

注:当否定词 little 本身作主语时,这时主、谓语就不颠倒。见上述第一项第4句。

三、little 作形容词“小的”讲,和 small 意思相近,但 small 单纯表示尺寸“小的”、而 little 除表示“小”以外。还带有一定的主观感情色彩。例如:

many little things of life 许多生活小事

a little present 一件小礼物

the little dog 这条小狗

the little people in society 社会上的小人物

these little problems 这些小问题

that little red rose 那朵小的红玫瑰等

四、与 little 搭配的常用短语

little by little 一点点地或逐渐地;

no less than (= at least) 5 miles 决不少于五英里或至少五英里;

not a little… 不少或相当多(糖、经验)等

注:注意 not a little 和 not a bit 的区别:

1) She is not a little tired. 她累得很。

2)They are not a bit tired. 他们一点不累。

五、few 和 a few 都用于可数名词之前。a few(少数几个)表示肯定概念,意思是“虽少但仍有一些” few 则表示否定概念,意思是“不多”,“没有多少”。两者都可用作主语、宾语和定语等

We have a few to words to say about this matter. 我们对这件事有几句话要说。(定语)

At that stage few of us knew English. 在那段时期,我们中间很少有人懂英语。(主语)

There are quite a few papers dealing with this subject. 有好几篇论文是讨论这个课题的。(定语)

There are not a few papers dealing with this subject. 有不少论文是讨论这个课题的。(定语)

I know few of them. 他们当中的人,我认识很少。

Many 和 Much 的用法

一、many 和 much 都作“许多”讲,但 many 用于修饰可数名词,而 much 修饰不可数名词

In our view, China has many oil fields. 在我们看来,中国有许多油田。

There is much natural gas in the west of China. 中国西部有许多天然气。

二、代词 many 和名词 much 用法举例

Many of us were too tired to go further. 我们中间有许多人那时累得不能再接着走了。

Many of his students want to sum up the past experience before going on. 他的许多学生要总结一下过去经验再继续干。

Much of the waste acid is utilized. 废酸中大部分得到利用。

注:many of 和 much of 后要用定冠词;若接代词或专门名词,则就不必用 the。

三、“much (或 far) + 比较级”或“much (或 far) + too + 原级”分别作“…得多”和“远为太…”之意讲

The sun is much greater than the moon. 太阳比月亮大得多。

This problem seems much (或 far) more difficult than that one. 这个问题似乎比那个问题难得多。

We turned back a much (或 for) larger enemy force. 我们把力量强得多的敌人顶了回去。

The cost is much (或 far) too much for me. 这笔费用对我说来是太大太大了。

注:若净增加的东西是可数名词,则仍须用 many,而不用 much。例如:She has many more English books than I do. 她的英语书比我多得多。(意译)

四、副词 much 修饰动词、过去分词时作“十分”讲

We all love China very much. 我们大家都非常热爱中国。(不能用 very 代替 very much。)

We are much interested in heat utilization. 我们对热量利用十分感兴趣。(按美国英语也可用 very, very much. 又如:I am very much pleased. = I am very pleased. 我非常高兴。)

五、含有 many 或 much 的常用固定短语举例

a great (或 good) many + 可数名词复数许多(学生、学校等)

Those five days seemed to me as many years. 那五天对我好象等于五年一样。

I was in the least not surprised, for I had expected as much. 我(丝)毫不惊奇,因为我早已料到会有那么多事。(意思接近于 so much.)

There are as many people in your class as in our class. 你班和我班的人数相同。

You never get as much useful work out of a machine as you put into it. 你从机器得到的有效功,永远不会等同于你输入的功。

On the moon itself the force of gravitation is one sixth as much as it is on the earth. 在月球上重力是地球的六分之一。

I have twice as many books as he. 我有的书是他有的两倍。(指比他有的书多一倍。也可改用:I have as many books again as he.)

Many a child knows only that (或 so) much. 许多小孩只知道那么多。(详见下面注 2 解释。)

We cannot come, much as we would like to. 尽管我们很愿意来,但现在不能来。

He can hardly walk, much less run. 他几乎不能步行,更不用说跑步了。

There is nothing much she can do. 几乎没有什么事情她能做的。

This film is not up to much. 这部电影不怎么样。

Have you seen much of him recently? 你最近常见到他吗?

注 1:much 和 many 的比较级和最高级都是 more 和 most,详见第 67 节 “more (或 most) + 形容词或副词原级”还分别构成比较级和最高级。例如:more useful 较为有用的;most widely 最广泛地等。

注 2:“many a + 可数名词单数”用法特殊,举例如下:

Many a teacher often shows concern for us. He wants us to make progress everyday. 许多老师经常关心我们。他们要我们天天进步。(注意谓语用第三人称单数形式,代词用 he, his 等。)

Many a time have they been to Beijing. 他们去过北京多次。(注意 Many a time 作状语位于句首时,后面要求主语、谓语颠倒,因为 many a time 和 often 近义, often 位于句首时也引起主语、谓语颠倒。)

注 3:英语表示“许多…、大量…、一大群…、少量…、少许…、很少…等”同义或近义短语颇多,详见第 149 节。

May 的主要用法

一、may 作“可以”解,表示许可;否定式是 must not(“不准”)或 may not(“不可”)

May I use this instrument to measure? 我可以用这个仪器来测量吗?

They may wait to get online. 他们可以等待上网。

You must not do this experiment without reading carefully through (或 over) the instructions. 你没有仔细读完说明书,决不准你做这个实验。

You may not operate the multimedia computer like that. 你不可那样操作那台多媒体计算机。

二、may 作“或许”、“也许”解,表示可能性;否定式 may not 作“也许不”、“或许不”讲

A man's ability may be great or small. 一个人能力有大小。

They may succeed. 他们也许会成功。(表示将来时。也可用 Perhaps they will succeed 代之。由此可见,may 可用于现在时和将来时。)

It may be about three o’clock. 现在大概三点钟。

It may not take too much time to build two-bedroom economy houses. 建造两卧室经济房也许花费不了太多时间。

She may be buying an IC telephone card. 她也许在买一张 IC 卡(或电话磁卡)。

三、may 用于目的从句

He works and studies hard that (或 so that, 或 in order that) he may serve the people better. 为了更好地为人民服务,他刻苦学习和工作。

Cables are usually laid underground that their life may be prolonged. 电缆通常铺设在地下,为的是延长使用期限。

四、may 用于让步从句

We must fulfil our task, however difficult it may be. 无论我们的任务如何艰巨,我们一定要完成它。

No matter how hard a solid may be, we can change its shape. 不管一个固体如何坚硬,我们总能改变它的形状。

Whatever may happen, we are determined to do this work. 无论发生什么事情,我们下定决心去做这项工作。

五、may 用于条件句或假设句里

If he arrives here, he may come to help us. 如果他到达这里,他也许来帮助我们。(真实条件句)

If he should need this home computer, he may use。如果他万一需要这台家用计算机,他可以使用它。(假设句)

六、“may + have + 过去分词”表示现在对过去事物的推断

They may have tried every means. 他们那时也许试用了各种方法。(或译“……各种手段。”)

He may not have cut that steel plate into halves. 他(当时)也许没有把那块钢板对开切割。

She may have arrived already. 那时她可能已经到了。

He may have been visiting these factories. 他那时可能一直在参观这些工厂吧。

They may have left yesterday. 他们可能昨天已走了。

注:若上句用 might (或 could) 代替 may,则句义变为“他本来是可以(或能够)昨天走的[但实际上他昨天没走]”。必须注意这些用法差别。

A:"Whatever has happened to Mary?" 甲:“玛丽究竟出什么事”

B:"I don't know. She may have got lost." 乙:“我不知道。她也许迷路了。”

七、“may well + 动词”和“and well + 主语 + may”用法举例在本句型中 well 按 with good reason(有充分理由)或 reasonably(有理地)去理解,就易于记住本句型用法

He may well be proud of his success。他有理由为他的成功而自豪。

They are proud of their Success, and well they may. 他们为获得成功而自豪,也是应该的。

You may well pull down an old house. 你们拆毁旧房是对的。

注:注意“may + 动词 + well”和 "may well + 动词" 的意思不同:She may study well. 她也许觉得很好。(试与上述三例比较。)

八、“主语 + may as well + 动词 + 比喻体 + as + 动词原形 + 本体”用法。这是比较特殊的连接比喻的方式,一般可译为“不妨”或“不如”,含消极口吻,不如 would rather…(宁愿…)或 had better…”(最好…)具有积极语气

You may as well call a cat a little tiger as call a tiger a big cat. 你可以把虎叫做大猫,同样也无妨可把猫叫做小老虎。

She may just as well go home as not. 她最好是回家去。

注意有时省略后面 as 引导的从句,这时 may as well 相当于 had better 的用法。例如:We may as well set out on our travels. 我们最好出发去旅行。

Might 的主要用法

一、might 作“可以”讲:1. may 的过去时;2. 虽指现在时,但口气谦虚、婉转,属虚拟语气用法之一

I asked him whether I might use his mobile phone. 我曾问他,我是否可以使用他的移动电话?

Might I borrow your pocket calculator? 我可以借用你的袖珍计算器吗?

二、might 作“也许”、“或许”讲,表示可能性:1. 用于过去时;2. 虽指现在时,但对所推断的事情把握不大

They told me that they might come. 他们告诉我说,他们或许来。

In most (或 the majority of) cases the calculations might not be accurate. 在大多数情况下,这些计算可能不准确。

Under open sky, the coefficient might range from 3 to 5. 露天时,该系数值范围也许为 3 到 5。

You oughtn't to have driven that car with the brakes out of order. You might have had a serious accident. 你本来就不该驾驶那辆刹车失灵的汽车。你会出严重车祸的。

三、might 用于目的从句。如果主句的谓语动词是过去时,目的状语从句的谓语动词用"might + 原形动词”

He taught you English (so) that you might serve the people better. (当时)他教你们英语,是为了你们可更好地为人民服务。

We went to the factories that theory might be linked with practice. 我们曾下厂,以便理论结合实践。

四、might 用于让步从句。如果主句的谓语动词是过去时,从句的谓语动词用“might + 原形动词”

Whatever might happen, they were determined to do the work. 无论发生什么事情。当时他们都下定决心去做那项工作。

五、might 用于条件句或假设句,包括用于过去未实现的动作

If he arrived here yesterday, he might go to help them. 如果他昨天到达这里,他也许去帮助他们。(真实条件句)

If he were to consider the new factors, he might come to a different conclusion. 假如他果真考虑那些新的因素,他是会得出不同结论的。(假设句,表示与将来事实可能相反。)

You might have succeeded if you had tried again. (当时)多试一次,也许你早就成功了。(假设句,表示与过去事实相反。)

They might have solved the problem with ease. 他们本来可以容易地解决这个问题。(过去未实现的动作)

The machine might have passed (或 stood) the test. 该机器本可早已检查合格。(实际上过去未实现。)

六、“主语 + might as well + 动词 + 比喻体,as + 动词原形 + 本体”用法。这是一种比较特殊的连接比喻的方式,一般可译为“正如不能…一样,也不能…”

You might as well expect the sun to rise in the west as expect us to Change our plan. 你不能使我们改变计划,正如不能使太阳从西方升起一样。

注意有时省略后面 as 引导的从句,这时 might as well 相当于 had better 的用法,但具有否定意味。例如:

You might as well reason with the wolf! 那样做无疑是同豺狼讲理。

If you had others do your sum, you might as well have them eat your lunch.(如果)你要别人代做算术,何不叫别人代你吃饭呢!

More 以及形容词和副词比较级的用法及注意点

一、more 是 many, much 的比较级

He has more e-mails than I (have). 他的电子邮件比我多。

There is more water there than here. 那边的水比这里多。

Five is two more than three. 五比三大二。

The beauty of the place is more than I can describe. 这地方风景之美非我所能描绘。

二、注意 "much (或 many, a little, a few 或具体数字等) + more”的用法。这时 more 前面的不定数或具体数字表示比原有的多出的数量

We need much more help than you. 我们比你们需要多得多的帮助。

I have many more net friends than she (has). 我的网友比她多得多。

You had better stay here for a few more days. 你最好再住几天。(言外之意,你在这里已住了几天了。)

He wants to take a little more water. 他想再取一点水。

The sun will rise in an hour more. 太阳再隔一小时就将升起。

Could I take ten more? 我能再拿十个吗?(不能译为:我能拿十多个吗?原文已包含“我原先已拿了几个”的意思,只是说这句话时还想再拿十个。)

We hope to visit this software development center once more. 我们希望再次访问这个软件开发中心。

One more whistle, and the train will start. 再响一次汽笛,火车就要开了。

What more (或 What else) do you want? 你还要什么?

There is hardly any more. 差不多没有了。(原句直译为:几乎再没有任何什么了。)

三、名词 more 的用法

Do you need a little more of this milk? 这种奶你是否还需要一点?

四、“副词 more + 形容词或副词”构成比较级的用法

He treats this substance with the acid more carefully than before. 他比以前更小心地用酸来处理这种物质。

This problem is becoming more and more serious. 问题变得越来越严重。

五、注意 "no more… than" (= "not… any more …than") 的用法。其意思相当于 "not… just as… not”

He is no more a teacher than we are. 他不是教师,如同我们不是教师一样。(= He is not a teacher any more than we are.)

I could no more do that than you. 我和你一样,不能做那种事。(= I could not do that any more than you.)

He can no more swim than I can fly. 他不能游泳,如同我不能飞一样。(= He can not swim any more than I can fIy.)

The robot will be only a machine having no more emotion than a car. 机器人仅是和汽车一样,也是没有感情的一种机器。

注:than 后面的文字表面上具有肯定的形式,但其含义仍属否定。翻译时要特别注意。

六、带有 more 的一些常用词组

Have you any more paper? 你还有纸吗?

I saw him no more. 我再也没见到他了。

It is more than probable that he will I fail. 十之八九,他会失败。(本义为:他非常可能失败。联系:I was more than pleased to receive your letter. 我当时接到你的信感到非常高兴。)

The book seems to be more a text-book than a grammar. 看来这本书与其说它是语法书,不如说它是本教科书。

She is more of a writer than a teacher. 与其说她是教师,还不如说她是作家。

She is more witty than wise. 与其说她聪明,不如说她机智。(本句是两个作表语的形容词在比较,用 more 表示前者多或大于后者。)

This product is of high quality, and what is more, it is very cheap at that price. 该产品质量高,而且价格又很便宜。

Science is much more than a mere accumulation of carefully collected facts. 科学远远不止是细心搜集到的事实的积累。

The population of the city has more than doubled (或 tripled) in the past twenty years. 在最近 20 年中该城市人口已增加一(或两)倍多。(注意 more than 修饰动词 double 或 triple。)

Don't ask her to with draw her suggestion, or she will stick to it all the more. 不要请她撤回她的建议,否则她会越加坚持了。

The more of the masses we unite, the better it is. 我们团结的群众越多越好。(本句属于“The + 比较级…,the+ 比较级…”句型。详见第 145 节、十二 和 148 节、一、Ⅸ 项。)

Most 以及形容词和副词最高级的用法和注意点

一、“the + 形容词或副词最高级 + 比较范围(有时可不表示出)”用于三个以上的人或事物之间进行比较。副词最高级一般不用 the

Who has the most books? 谁的书最多?

Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element of all. 氢是所有化学元素中最轻的元素。

Ti is the fourth most abundant structural material in nature. 钛是自然界中第四个最富有的结构材料。

Gas, oil, and electric furnaces are(the)most commonly used for heat treating metal. 金属热处理最常用的(炉子)是煤气炉、油炉和电炉。

There is not the least wind today. 今天风一点也没有。(little 的最高级)

The metals in the list are arranged with the most active first and the least active last. 表中金属排列顺序是第一个最活泼,而最后一个最不活泼。(least 在形容词或副词前则作“最不”解。句中 first 和 last 分别同前面名词化了的形容词构成复合宾语。)

It was Comrade Wang who talked the most at yesterday’s meeting. 昨天会上说话最多的正是王同志。(“It was… who”为强调句型。)

Water is by far the most abundant liquid. 水是最丰富的液体。(注意用 by far 加强程度。详见下面注 2。)

Among the three students he reads the text(the)most distinctly. 在这三个学生中间,他读课文最清楚。(副词最高级前的 the 通常不用。)

注 1:三个或三个音节以上的形容词或副词常采用前加 most 的方式变为最高级。例如:the most important problem 最重要的问题,most effectively 最有效地等。

注 2:对于形容词最高级还常可采用加进一些词来加强语气以表示“最最…”等之类的语气。例如:the worst possible results 最最坏的结果,the very best aim 最最好的志向(或目标),far (或 by far, much) the lightest chemical element 最最轻的化学元素,easily the most interesting novel 最最有趣的小说,out and away the best football player 最最好的足球运动员,the single best method 唯一最好的方法等。

二、注意“比较范围”有时挪到句首或者甚至省略的情况

Of all the personal computers this one works best. 在所有的个人计算机申,这一台操作最好。

The alloys of iron and carbon are the most important alloys used industrially. 铁碳合金是工业上使用的最重要的合金。

She said that this type of cellular phone was the newest.(那时)她说这种型式的蜂窝式移动电话是最新式的。

The most common acceleration is that of freely falling bodies. 最普通的加速度就是自由落体的加速度。

三、形容词最高级前面没有 the, 不表示比较,而只作“非常”或“在很大程度上”讲,但作表语时,若不和别人、别物相比,常不用 the, 仍作“最……”讲

It is a most important problem.(= It is a very important problem.)这是个很重要的问题。

It is most important to link theory with practice. 理论联系实际非常重要。

She was most diligent in her work when she lived here. 她住在这里时,她工作最勤奋。(注意她不和别人相比,而是她自己同自己比,只是时期不同而已。)

These materials are most useful in wartime. 这些材料在战时最有用。(相比方法和上句相同。)

That is our most interesting problem today. 这是我们今天最感兴趣的问题。(出现物主代词时,最高级形容词前面的 the 就不再使用。)

四、most 的单独使用

most 后面用副词或形容词,才构成最高级。单个 most 有时作 many 和 much 的最高级,有时作名词用,作“最大量”、“大多数”、“大部分”讲。例如:

He made the most mistakes in his calculation. 他计算中的错误最多。(any 的最高级)

Which is the most, -3, -5 or O? 哪个数最大,-3,-5 还是 O?(much 的最高级)

What has the most energy?什么东西具有最大的能量?(much 的最高级)

Most forms of matter can be changed from one state to another. 物质的多数形态能够从一种状态转变为另一种状态。(Most 作“大多数”讲。)

Most of the experiments in the cloning research have been finished in time. 克隆研究中的大多数实验已按时完成。(句中 Most 为名词。)

Most of the energy we use is produced by burning fuel. 我们使用的大部分能量是由燃料的燃烧产生的。

It is only half a mile at(the)most. 至多只有半英里。(固定词组)

We should, most of all, integrate theory with practice. 我们尤其应该把理论同实际结合起来。(固定词组)

Most people know (that) electricity standing still is no more useful than is a stationary belt between a steam engine and a machine to be driven. 大多数人知道,电停滞不动,如同架设在蒸汽机和要被传动的机器之间的皮带固定不动一样,都是无用的。(“no more… than…”用法见第 066 节、五。)

注:most 作“大多数”、“大部分”讲时,前面不加 the。

五、注意 -most 在词尾构成形容词最高级 innermost 最内部的,rearmost 最后面的,uppermost 最上的等

Must 的主要用法

一、情态动词 must 作“必须“讲,和 have to, need to 近义。否定式用 need not(或needn't ),作“不必”讲。若用 must not (或 mustn't),则作“不可以”、“不准”讲,有“禁止”的含义

We must become one with the people. 我们必须和群众打成一片。

You must work out a plan before doing any work. 做任何工作前,你必须制订计划。

You needn't repair the beeper, for it operates quite normally. 你不必修理这个寻呼机,因为它工作很正常。

You must not set fire to these materials. 你不可焚烧这些材料。

二、must 作“一定”、“准是”讲,表示推断

This conclusion must be correct。这个结论一定是正确的。

Since air has weight, it must press down on the surface of the earth. 既然空气具有重量,地球表面一定会受到它向下的压力。

They must be piling things up. 他们准是在把东西堆起来。

They must have swept off the dirt.(那时)他们准是已刷除污物。

He must have been overdoing things a bit.(那时)他一定有点过于劳累了。(意译)

注:“must + 完成式动词”表示对过去情况的推断,参阅上述第4,5句。

三、用于过去时和将来时,一般以 had to 和 will have to 代替 must,只是偶尔用 must

You had to set your house in order yesterday. 昨天你应该把你屋子收拾好。

Tomorrow you will have to set to learning spoken English. 你明天必须开始学英语口语。

At that time we must set him to act like that. 那时我们应该叫他那样做。(用 had to 比 must 更好。)

注:必须注意,表示主观上的“必须”,一般用 must;迁就客观的“必要”,则用 have to。此外,由于理论推测或循自然规律而产生什么结果,则用 must,而不要用 have to。再者,表示习惯动作一定要用 have to,而表示命令则只能用 must。试比较下列各句:

I must go now or I shall lose my train. 我现在该走了,否则要误车。(表示主观上的“应该”)

He must have gone home. 他一定是回家了.(对过去的事表示一种推测)

We have to go to the office every day. 我们得每天去办公室。(表示习惯上的“必要”)

You mustn’t do that. 你不可做那种事。(表示命令或禁止)

名词或其短语作前置定语及其新发展—夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语

在英语中,名词直接放在名词前作定语是常见的现象。例如:quality steel 优质钢,market prices 市场价格等。名词之所以常常直接用作前置定语,是与人们要求表达思想的方式尽量简便有关。如果上面两个词组用 steel of high quality 和 priceson the market 来表示,就显得罗嗦,远不如用 qualilty steel 和 market prices 那样简洁、确切、有力。

一、名词作定语的几种情况和判别

I. 单个或多个名词作名词或其相应词组的定语。例如:

network economy 网络经济,a century baby 一个世纪婴儿,a container ship 一艘集装箱船,knowledge property right 知识产权,China Century Monument 中华千年碑,the Forturn Global Forum 世界财富论坛,the petroleum chemical plant 石油化工厂,a network personal computer 一台网络个人计算机,a home service company 一个家庭服务公司等

II. 名词性词组作单个名词的定语。例如:

the optical disc library 光盘库,the iron and steel industry 钢铁工业,the left luggage office 行李寄存处,work done factor 作功系数,a Ph. D. student = a Doctor of Philosophy student 博士生等

III. 名词性词组作名词性词组的定语。例如:

high voltage electrical energy 高压电能,low voltage direct current 低压直流电,a gear shaft roller bearing 一个齿轮轴滚柱轴承,a crank shaft bearing oil pipe 一根曲柄轴承的油管等

Ⅳ. 有些名词没有相应的形容词形式,就非得直接用名词作定语。例如:

party member 党员,room temperature 室温,output target 生产指标,engine cylinder 发动机气缸等

Ⅴ. 动名词具有名词的作用,也可作名词的定语,表示用途或表示与所修饰的名词有关的动作。例如:

building materials 建筑材料,reading-rooms 阅览室,measuring instruments 测量(用的)仪表,cooling water 冷却(用)水等

注意动名词还具有动词的特点,它可搭配一些词用以说明。但动名词作定语时,与动名词有关的词(一般是动名词的行为对象、工具或方式,通常均用名词表示之),只能放在动名词之前。如:

a metal cutting machine 金属切割机,a direction indicating device 方向指示器,a hand riveting machine 手铆机,automatic data-processing 自动的数据处理,earth quake fore casting sectors 地震预报部门等

上面前三例,切不要误解为现在分词短语修饰前面的名词,也即不要理解为“切割机器的金属”、“指示装置的方向”和“铆机器的手”。必须结合上下文,进行逻辑判断。反过来说,如 high temperature lubricating grease(高温润滑脂),只能理解为 high temperature 是修饰 lubricating grease 的,切不能从形式上看,误以为 high temperature 是动名词 lubricating 的行为对象或工具。第 4 例却是形容词 automatic 修饰后面的动名词短语。

必须注意,有时用一个较复杂的名词性词组代替上述 -ing 前的一个简单的名词。例如:

a gas turbine generating station 一个燃气涡轮发电站(这里 gas turbine 作动名词 generating 的行为工具,用以表示行为方式。);heat removal plant cleaning operation 排热装置清理操作(这里 heat removal plant 和动名词 cleaning 是动宾关系,而整个词组修饰后面的名词 operation。)

当然,在名词和后面的动名词之间用连字符号 “-”,然后再去修饰后面的名词,这种情况比上述情况显然容易判别。例如:

a lamp-testing device 一个车灯检验设备;the machine-building industry 机械制造工业;pipe-bending machine 一台弯管机等

注 1:上述例子中的 lamp, machine 和 pipe 不能用复数形式,即后面不可加 s。

注 2:注意有时结构与上相同,但 -ing 应理解为现在分词,因被修饰的名词能产生 -ing 所表示的动作。例如:the labour-loving people 勤劳的人民,an oxygen-containing gas 一种含氧气体等

Ⅵ. 对于名词作定语的判别

名词作定语,在句中有时就不易判断。判别时必须注意整个句子的分析,同时又得在意义上讲得通,两者缺一就不行。例如:

The soil and water mixture separates. 土和水的混合物能分离。

如果在上句中把 soil 和 water mixture 当作主语的两个并列组成部分,那么就无法解释谓语 separates 用第三人称单数形式。如果 soiland water 作 mixture 的定语,mixture 作主语则主语和谓语单数第三人称形式相协调,意义上讲得通,就决定了这样判别和分析是正确的。

Build the model of a house water and drain system. 造一个房屋给排水系统的模型。

这里不能认为 a house 是说明 the model 的,否则后面一些词的成分难以分析;同时又不能把 house water 和 system 分隔开,否则前面冠词 a 只说明 water,这当然也是不可能的,因为一般说来,物质名词 water 前不用冠词 a。这么一来,非得 house water 和 drain 并列,都形容这个 system,而冠词 a 也是说明 system 的。按这种判别,句义讲得通,句中各成分在句子分析中也各得其所,反过来也证明这种判别是正确的.

Our city water systems pump water into high tanks. 我市各供水系统都把水打送到各高位罐中去。

初一看,上句中五个名词连续地罗列在一起。判别时首先设法确定句中谓语。句中 systems 只能作名词复数。pump 当名词用,是“泵”;当动词用,是“用泵打送”。pump 作动词用,主语必为复数。如果把 systems 当主语,前面 Our city water 都作 systems 的定语,整个句子各成分各得其所,句义讲得通,于是可认为这样判别是正确的。

一般说来,作定语的名词都用单数。作定语用的表示度量单位的名词,如果其前面的数字超过 1,仍然用单数。注意这一点,对判别有一定好处。例如:

We made these instruments for plant use. 我们曾制造这些仪器供工厂使用。

A15 ampere fuse melts if the current exceeds 15 amperes. 如果电流超过 15 安培,则 15 安培的保险丝就熔化。

Since the 18th century, a great amount of energy has been devoted to creating imitations of human, rather than simple animal, activity. 18世纪以来,大量的能已用于创造对人的动作的模仿,而不是模仿简单的动物动作。(句中 activity 前的逗号必须用,却不妨碍 animal 仍是修饰后面的 activity。这正表明 human 和 animal 分别都与后面的 activity 有关。)

某些场合下,出于词义需要,或该词本来就只有复数形式,作定语用的名词就用复数形式。例如:

The Shanghai Machine Tools Plant 上海机床厂;Foreign Languages Press 外文出版社;an arms plant 兵工厂(arms 作“武器”讲,只有复数);the sports meeting 运动会(常用 sports 表示体育运动)。其合成词也如此。例如:sports man 男运动员,sports-car 赛车等。The savings account (或 book) 存折;the leather goods department 皮革制品部;the United Nations Organization 联合国组织等

二、名词作前置定语的新发展——夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语

Asia by car inc. 亚洲汽车旅行公司;

Bush State of Union Address 布什的国情演讲;

Right to Life Rally 维护生存权集会;

The United Nations’ Law of Sea Conference 联合国海洋法会议;

New York to Boston trains 纽约到波士顿的各个车次;

The Dolphins of the Deep Show 深海海豚表演(这里 Deep 为名词,作“深海、海洋”讲);

The City of Tianjin Food Company 天津市食品公司(也可说“Tianjin City Food Company”);

Travel sin Asia Lectures 亚洲旅行讲座;

The recognition for the word award 工作认可奖;

The careless use of gun accident 用枪不慎的事故;

He was something of a problem boy. 他曾是一个相当难管的男孩。

My friend is former University of Texas at Houston chemistry professor. 我的朋友是前得克萨斯(州)大学休斯敦分校的化学教授。

Co is formed by the one with one pairing of atoms of carbon and oxygen. 一氧化碳是由一比一成对的碳原子构成的。

注:采用夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语时不宜太长,有时可采用加连字符的方法来明显表示前者整体作前置定语。甚至于发展到有关词(如 all 等)用连字符引出介词短语或定语从句的形式作前置定语. 例如: a cost-of-living rise 生活费的增加;people-to-people contact sand exchanges 人民之间的联系和交流;the soldier-on-duty sentry box 哨兵的值班岗亭;the head-to-head competition 不相上下(或势均力敌)的比赛;after-sale service 售后服务;a lot of Chinese-made ground-to-ground long-range strategic guided missiles 许多中国制造的地对地远程导弹;Enjoy an all-you-can-eat Italian gourmet buffet. 请享受一顿你能品尝各种意大利美味佳肴的自助餐。

Near 的用法

一、形容词 near 作表语,表示“空间或时间靠近或临近”之意,而作定语时则表示“近的”或“亲近的”

Our school is near from here. 我校离这里很近。

The Christmas Day is near. 圣诞节临近。

I didn't know they were near friends.(当时)我不知道他们是亲密的朋友。

a. The girl was near to tears. 那时那小女孩几乎要哭了。

b. The capital shortage was near to ruining our boss.(当时)资金短缺几乎使我们的老板破产。

二、介词 near 表示“在…附近”或“靠近…”,仍可用于地点时间方面

Please stand near your dad. 请站在你爸爸身旁。

It is near Mother’s Day. 快到母亲节了。

He is near death. 他快要死了。

Her idea is near ours. 她的想法和我们(的)接近。

注 1:注意介词 near 却有比较级和最高级。例如:

1)This pager (或 beeper) cost me nearer 300 yuan. 这个寻呼机差不多花了我 300 元。

2)You had better stand nearer your mother. 你最好站得离你母亲近一些。

3)Who comes nearest her in IQ? 谁(在)智商(上)最接近她?

4)Please call us nearer the time of the parent-teacher conference. 快开家长会时请叫我们一下。

注 2:在否定句中,若 near 和地名连用,则表示“没有去…”或“没有走近…”之意。

1)I haven't been near my hometown for years. 我多年没有回家乡了。

2)He never goes near a dancing hall. 他从来不去舞厅。

三、副词 near 表示“附近、临近、近乎、几乎”之意。注意有时“near + 形容词”前面使用 somewhere, anywhere 或 nowhere 的用法

It was near upon six o’clock. 那时快六点钟了。

Our National Day is drawing near. 我们的国庆节即将到来。

It’s getting near to my birthday. 我的生日快到了。

Our conclusion is somewhere near correct. 我们的结论接近正确。

My task is nowhere near fulfilled yet. 我的任务还远未完成。

Are their answers anywhere near correct? 他们的答案都接近于正确吗?

Need 和 Dare 的用法及注意点

一、作为情态动词,need 和 dare 一般用于疑问句和否定句中,后面要求用不带 to 的不定式动词

Need she buy a PC? (=Does she need to buy a PC?她有必要买一台个人计算机吗?)(后句中 need 为实义动词,PC 为 personal computer 的缩写。)

He need tell no one. 他不必告诉别人。(=He needn’t tell anybody.)

He need labour under no alarm for his safety. 他毋须在为他的安全提心吊胆的情况下劳动。(need 用于否定句中。)

A genuinely worthwhile product need fear nothing. 一个真正的名副其实的产品不必怕什么。(同上)

You needn’t be standing in the sun. 你不必在太阳光底下站着。

I daren’t criticize you, because I thought you must be right. 我不敢批评你,因为我以为你准是对的。

I don’t know whether she dare reveal the truth about these events. 我不知道她是否敢揭露这些事件的真相。

Who says he dare not turn attention to that difficult problem?谁说他不敢把注意力转移到那个难题上。

If you dare speak to me like that again, you will be sorry. 如果你再敢这样同我说话,你会后悔的。( dare 还可作为情态动词用于条件从句中。)

注:常用“will need to…”来表示提出劝告:Will you need to send for the doctor? 你要不要派人请医生来?(这里 need 为实义动词。)

二、情态动词 need 和 dare 后用不带 to 的完成式动词不定式表示过去未实现的动作

She needn't have gone to the club last week. 她上周其实不必去俱乐部。(事实上她已经去了。若用 She didn’t need to go to the club last week,则句义为“她上周没有必要去俱乐部。”这表明实际上她也没有去俱乐部。)

I daren’t have spoken like that last night. 昨夜我本来不敢那样说话。(事实上我那样说了。)

三、实义动词 need 和 dare 后接带 to 的不定式短语的用法

My computer is down. It needs to be repaired at once. 我的计算机坏了。需要立即修理。(注意 to be repaired 可用动名词 repairing 代替,却不能用被动态动名词 being repaired 替换。)

He dares to come out with an opposite point of view. 他敢于提出相反的观点。

四、注意 dare 的下列用法

I dare you to break the windows. 我量你不敢打破窗户。(原文未出现否定词,却含否定意思。)

A:Mommy, can I play with the pager? 妈妈,我能玩这个寻呼机吗?

B:Don't you dare (或 You dare)!量你不敢(或你敢)!

Neither, Nor 和 Neither… nor… 的用法

一、neither 作形容词用,原意作“两者之中没有一个的”讲

Neither answer is right. 这两个答案都不对。(原义是:两个答案中没有一个是对的。)

In neither case can we agree. 在这两种情况下,我们都不同意。(原义是:在这两种情况中任何一种情况下我们都不同意。由于本句第一个成分含有否定词 neither,所以后面主语、谓语有颠倒现象。)

二、neither 作代词用,当“两者中任何一个都不”讲

Neither of them wants to go. 他们两个都不想去。(原义为:他们两个人中任何一个都不想去。)

A proton has a positive charge and an electron (has) a negative charge, but a neutron has neither. 质子带有一个正电荷,电子带有一个负电荷,但中子这两种电荷都没有。

三、连词“neither… nor…”作“既不……又不……”讲

Neither Sidney nor I am going to buy piratical VCDs. 锡德尼和我都不打算买盗版的 VCD 光盘。(用 neither… nor… 连接并列主语时,谓语则随最后一个主语的人称和数而变。)

Air is neither a solid nor a liquid. 空气既不是固体,又不是液体。

Neither could theory do without practice, nor could practice do without theory. 理论没有实践不行,实践没有理论也不行。(否定词位于句首,后面主、谓语就采用疑问句格式的颠倒语序。)

In one word, a gas has neither definite size nor shape. 总之,气体既没有一定大小,又没有一定形状。

Neither you nor I nor anybody else has been there. 无论你、我和任何其他人都没去过那里。

We Shall never agree to the metaphysical viewpoint, not under any circumstances, not on any condition, neither at home nor abroad. 我们决不同意这种形而上学观点,在任何情况下不同意,在任何条件下不同意,在国内不同意,在国外也不同意。

We fear neither hardship nor death. (= We do not fear either hardship or death.) 我们既不怕难,又不怕死。

She neither knows nor cares what they say. 她既不知道又不关心他们说的话。

The atmosphere helps to maintain a fairly even temperature, so that over most of the world it is neither so hot that life is scorched, nor so cold that everything freezes. 大气能帮助维持一个相当均衡的温度,因此在地球的大部分区域内,气候既不会热得使生物枯焦,也不会冷得使万物冻僵。

注:注意双重否定变为肯定句的情况。例如:Emily doesn't neither speak nor write. 埃米莉既能说又能写。

四、"not… neither" 和 "not(或 seldom 等)…nor" 连用,作“不…,也不…”讲

He will not go, neither will I. 他不去,我也不去。

He has no time, nor have I. 他没有时间,我也没时间。(注意前句中用 no 表示否定式。)

I do not know, nor do I care. 我不知道,也没留意。

注:上面三句后半部都有主语、谓语颠倒现象。如果前部和后部的主语是同一个,句意也相同,则主语、谓语不颠倒(见下面对话 B 中的第一句)。

[对话]

A:I don’t think he is diligent. 甲:我认为他不用功。

B:Neither he is. Neither is his younger sister. 乙:他确实不用功。他的妹妹也不用功。

Not I, nor anybody else, saw your software. 你的软件我没有看见,其他任何人也没有看见。

Ann seldom does her homework in the morning, nor does Joy。安很少在早晨做课外作业,而乔也不在早晨做课外作业。

注:注意前后两句使用不同的助动词或情态动词。有时可单独使用 neither。

1)He doesn't know, nor can I guess. 他不知道,我也猜不出来。

2)I know the answer neither. (=I do not know the answer, either.) 我也不知道那答案。(注意:在肯定句中表示“也”要用 too 或 also,而在否定句中要用 either. 这两种用法一般彼此不换。)

Never 用法

一、用 never(永不,从来没有)表示否定

We shall never forget today’s network conference. 我们永不忘记今天的网络会议。

They have never seen such a new-type multimedia computer. 他们从来没见过这样一台新型的多媒体计算机。

I never said such a thing. 我当时根本没有说过这种事情。

Never in my life have I seen such a stock exchange. 我生平从来没有见过这样的证券交易所。

不难看出,never 在各句中的位置和 not 相同。用于否定一般现在时和一般过去时谓语时,不再用助动词 do, does 和 did。当 never 位于句首给予强调时,句中主、谓语也采用倒装词序(见上面第 4 句和下面第Ⅱ项第 2 句)。

二、两点注意

Ⅰ. 注意下列两句中,由于 never 位置不同,句义就不同:

He never intended to use this method. (当时)他从来没想使用这种方法。

He intended never to use this method. 他想从此永远不使用这种方法了。

II. 注意 never so… as 和 never… so… as 作“从来不如……那样”、“永远不如…那样”讲:(联系 not so… as 作“不如(或没有)……那样”讲。)

The moon will never be so large as the sun. 月亮永远不如太阳那样大。

Never before has there been a person so whole-heartedly devoted to the cause of public health as she. 从来没有一个人像她那样全心全意地致力于公共卫生事业。

No matter how (或 what, where, who 等)疑问词的用法

No matter how (或 what, where, who, where, when 等) 引出的让步状语从句常可分别用 However, Whatever, Wherever, Whoever, Whenever 等来代替,并分别表示“不管(或不论)如何…”、“不论或不管什么”、“不管或不论何处”、“不管或不论是谁”、“不管或不论在何处或去何处”、“不管或不论什么时候”等含义。

All matter, no matter what (= whatever) it is, is made up of atoms. 每种物质,不管它是什么,都由原子构成。

No matter what (= whatever) happens, we must push on with our work. 不管发生什么情况,我们都必须赶快完成工作. (转译)

When n, P and T have definite values, then V must have a definite value too, no matter what (= whatever) gas is present. So we may write PV = nRT. 不管存在的是什么气体,当 n, P 和 T 具有一定值时,则 V 也必须有一定值。因此我们可写成 PV = nRT。

No matter how(= However)difficult the ship construction may be, we must complete it in time. 不管造船如何艰巨,我们必须按时完成。

Force is measured in pounds, no matter how (= However) it is produced. 不管力是怎样产生的,可按磅来计量。

No matter where (= wherever) you want me to go, I will follow you. 不管你要我去哪里,我一定跟你走。

No matter when (= whenever) you leave, we’ll go to the subway station to meet you. 不论你何时动身,我们都将去地铁站迎接你。

No matter who(= whoever)phones, please tell them we are out. 不论谁来电话,请告诉他们我们外出了。

注:注意下列两个句型跟上述句型有所不同:

1)No matter whether he is right or wrong, he usually wins the argument. 不论他是对或错,他在辩论中总是获胜。(本句可省略 No matter 和 he is, 而句义不变。)

2)No matter if he gets into trouble. 如果他惹了麻烦,那也无关紧要。

None, Nobody (或 No one), Not one 和 Nothing 用法异同

一、泛指无一人,用 nobody 或 no one

Nobody (= No one) knew the composition of this substance before now. 以前没人知道该物质的组成。

No one has ever found a way to create energy out of nothing. 从来没有人找到过一种可以凭空产生能量的方法。

二、上下文表明有一定范围,数量超过三个以上(包括三个),则要用 none, 也可用 not one, 但不可用 nobody 或 no one

Not one (或 None) of the answers is right. 这些答案没有一个是对的。(使用 none 时,后面谓语用 is 或 are 均可。)

a. None of the five naughty children were back yesterday. 昨天这五个淘气的小孩都没有回来。(none 用于人时后面谓语用复数形式为宜,以表示“所有这些人都不…”。若表示“其中一个也不…”,则可用谓语的单数形式。若用 Not one 代 None, 则谓语用单数形式为宜。)

b. All the naughty children (或 All of them) were not back yesterday. 并不是所有这些淘气的小孩昨天都回来了。(这是部分否定,不可按字面翻译。详见第 9 节。)

None of the petroleum belongs to them. 这石油没有一点是属于他们的。(of 后为单数名词,则谓语只能用单数形式。)

None of the money is mine. 这笔钱没有一点是我的。(句中不能用 are 代替 is。)

Nobody (或 No one) but me saw their assistant accountant the other day. 前几天只有我看见了他们的会计助理。

None but the best coffee is good enough. 除最好的咖啡外其它都不够好。

None but a strong man could have lifted it.(那时)只有强壮的人才抬得动它。(隐含“那时现场无强壮的人”。)

三、副词 none 用于比较级前作“一点也不”、“毫不”讲,后常接 for 短语,而 none 用于 “too + 形容词(或副词)”前面,则作“不太”、“一点也不”讲

Joe’s car is none the worse for wear (=Use has done the car no harm). 乔的车子一点也没有损耗。(指“使用这辆车并未给它带来什么损坏”。)

If we take only one piece of cake, mother will be none the wiser. 如果我们吃一块蛋糕,妈妈仍然不会知道的。(be none the wiser 系固定短语,作“仍然不知道”讲。还可用 be no wiser 或 be not much wiser 代替,有时还可译为“仍然不明白”。)

They had apologized to him, but he was none the less angry. 他们当时向他道歉了,但他仍然生气。(若本句第二部分改用 “…, and so he was no less angry,” 则句义变为“…,于是他就绝不生气了”。参阅第 59 节。)

You are none too early. 你一点也不太早。

The instructions are none too clear. 这些指示一点也不太清楚。

They are none so fond of their son. 他们一点也不喜欢自己的儿子。

四、注意 none other than… 及 no other than… 的用法和理解

He is none other the the department chief. 他正是部门主任。(原义是:他不是别人,正是部门主任。)

It is no other than my close friend. 这(不是别人)正是我的知己朋友。

It is no other than this. 正是这个

五、nothing 的用法

Nothing in the world moves faster than light. 世界上没有东西比光运动得更快了。

I saw nothing on the desk. = I didn't see anything on the desk. 我在书桌上没有看到什么(或任何)东西。

They worked up a private company from nothing. 他们白手起家筹建了一个私营公司。

His failure was due to nothing else than his own carelessness. 他的失败正是由于他自己的粗心大意。(nothing else than 含有“不是别的,正是…”之意,也可用 nothing less than 代之,但语气稍弱。)

His success is nothing but labour and diligence. 他的成功只不过是劳动加勤奋。

The situation is nothing else but fine. 形势大好。(由“…除了好以外不会是其它任何什么”转译过来。)

Not 和 No 用法差别

一般来说,no 相当与 not any 或 not a,但有时两者用法略有差别或有较大差别。

一、在“be + not (或 no) + 表示”结构中,用 not 仅是一般的否定,而用 no 作“决不”、“丝毫不”讲,否定语气比 not 强

a)I am not a physicist. 我不是物理学家。

b)I am no physicist. 我对物理一窍不通。

a)She is not good at English composition. 她不擅长于英语作文。

b)She is on good at English composition. 她对于英语作文一窍不通。

I haven't seen Derek for years, but he is no different. 我已有多年未见到德立克了,但他丝毫没变样。

二、在 "not more(或其它词的比较级)… than…" 和 "no more(或其它词的比较级)…than…”中,前者为一般否定,但原文在 than 后却不出现任何否定词

a)He is not more wounded than you. 他的伤不如你的重。

b)He is no more wounded than you. 他和你一样,没有受伤。

The greatness of a people is no more determined by their number than the greatness of a man is determined by his height. 一个民族的伟大不决定于其人口多少,正如一个人的伟大,不决定于他的身高。(用 no more… than… 时,与上句不同,既否定前者,同时也否定后者。)

He can no more swim than I can fly. 他不能游泳,如同我不能飞一样。(从本句中更明显地看出,more 是单独作比较级用。本句直译是:“他能游泳决不比我能飞的可能性大。”“我不能飞”这是现实,但通过这种对比,却把“他不能游泳”也刻划出来了。同时必须指出,本句中还可用 "not any more" (= no more) 和 than “连用的形式代替 "no more 和 than" 的连用,即改写为:He cannot swim any more than I can fly.)

She is no more a genius than I am。我不是天才,她也不是天才。(意译。本义是:我不是天才是现实,她是天才决不比我是天才现实性大。)

a. This water pump is no better than that one. 这台水泵和那台一样差。(原义为:这台水泵决不比那台好。言外之意,两台泵都不好。由此可见,than 后含有否定意思。这实质上是 no more… than… 用法的推广。)

b. This watch is not better than that one. 这块表不如那块好。

注:上述前四句和第 5 句 a 都属于同类人或物进行对比。但下例就不属于上述用法:No one can be in China more than a few hours without sensing an enormous optimism. 任何人在中国只要呆上几小时,就会感到有一种巨大的乐观主义精神。(句中more than a few hours 仅表示时间的数量,况且 one(指人)和 hours 不属于同类;无法进行对比。)

三、与数字连用时,not more than ten 为“不超过 10”(即至多 10,也许低于 10),而 no more than 10 则为“只有 10”(着重表示“决不超过 10,而只有 10 那么多”之意,给人以“数量不够大”的口气。not less than 50 为“至少 50”(也许不止 50),而 no less than 50 则为“达到 50”或“竟然有 50”,并给人以“数量不小的”口气。因此,还可加译“竟然”或“高达”等字。注意这种用法还可推广到表示长、宽、厚等方面。

no longer than 20 days 至多(或最长)20 天(甚至不到 20 天)

no wider than 50 mm 至多 50 毫米宽(甚至不到 50 毫米)

no later than 11 o’clock 最晚 11 点钟(甚至不到十一点钟)

no thicker than 8 inches 至多 8 英寸厚(甚至不到 8 英寸)

His brother no less than you is wrong.(至少)跟你一样,他的兄弟也错了。

四、not 用于表示主句后面被否定的省略句

It is going to blow hard. 要刮大风吧。

We hope not. 我们希望不要刮大风。(不能说 We don’t hope.)

Is there any doubt about it? 关于这件事还有什么疑义吗?

I think not. 我认为没有疑义。(不能说 ※I don't think so回答,因为对方并没有表明自己的任何观点。)

Shall you get back for the meeting tomorrow? 你明天回来参加会吗?

I fear not. 我怕不行。(也可回答成“I am afraid not”,但句义类同。)

注:具有上述用法的动词还有:suppose, believe, expect, fancy (设想), seem, appear 等。

五、“all both 或 every (包括 everything, everybody, everywhere 等) + 否定式谓语 + …”不是全部否定,而只是部分否定

All the answers are not right.(部分否定)= Not all the answers are right. 答案未必全对。

切不要按字面译为“所有的答案都不对”。如果要表达这个意思,英语就用:“None of the answers are (或 is) right. “其原义是”这些答案中没有一个是对的”,即“所有答案都不对”。再如:All is not lost. 并非全失。(部分否定)

I do not remember all these formulas. 这些公式我并非全都记得。

Both of the books are not helpful.(部分否定)= Not both of the books are helpful. 这两本书不是都有益的。

如果把上句改为 Neither of the books is helpful. 句意就变为“这两本书都不是有益的”。也可用:Either of the books is not helpful 或 Either book is not helpful. 再如:We do not like both of the books. 这两本书我们不是都喜欢的。(部分否定,即我们只喜欢其中的一本。)

Every one cannot answer.(部分否定)= Not everyone can answer. 并非人人都能答上来。只有改为“No one can answer”时,才能译为“没有一个人能答上来。”再如:Everyone cannot do a good few experiments. 并非人人都能做不少个实验。(部分否定)

Everybody would not like to go there. 并不是每人都愿去那里。(部分否定)只有改为“Nobody would like to go there”,才能译为“没人愿去那里”。

Chemical equations tell us a lot, but not everything. 化学反应式告诉我们许多东西,但并非样样都说了。(部分否定)

试比较:The equation tells us nothing. 这个方程式什么也没告诉我们。(全部否定)

Such a thing will not be found everywhere. 这样的东西并非到处都能找到。(部分否定)试比较:Such a thing is nowhere to be found. 这样的东西无处可找。(全部否定)

注:“not…at all”仍表示全部否定,作“一点也不…”讲。例如:

I don’t know them at all. 我一点也不认识他们。

六、当否定式谓语和 always, often, quite, entirely, wholly, altogether 连用时,一般都是部分否定

Forces do not always produce movement. 力并非总是产生运动的。(不能理解为“力总是不产生运动的”。)

He does not of the go to the laboratory. 他并不常去实验室。(不能理解为“他常常不去实验室。”)

The old house is not quite what it should be. 这老房子并不十分合乎理想。(不能译为“这老房子很不合乎理想”。)

He does not wholly (altogether 或 entirely) agree. 他并不完全同意。(不能译为“他完全不同意”。)

七、注意有时英语否定主句,而汉语译成否定后面的宾语从句

I do not think (that) the test will end in failure. 我认为试验不会以失败而告终。

We don’t believe (that) he will agree with you. 我们相信他不会同意你。

I don’t suppose (that) she will come. 我猜想她不会来。

注:具有上述用法的主句谓语还有:imagine 想像,fancy 设想,reck on 认为,feel 等。但含义相似的 hope, fear, surmise 猜测,presume 推测,assume 假定等却都不具有 think 那样的否定用法。

Of 的主要用法及其固定短语的分类理解

一、Of 短语做后置定语表示所属关系和特征时的汇总

I. of 短语做后置定语表示所属关系时的用法举例

a student of Tianjin University (= a Tianjin University student) 一个天津大学学生;

the health of her mother 他母亲的健康;

an ear relative of mine (或 of my own) 我的一个近亲[不能说 ※my a near relative];

that dear brother of yours 你那位亲爱的兄弟[也不能说 ※that your dear brother];

a close friend of my father’s 我父亲的一个知己朋友;

this plan of theirs 他们的这个计划等

注:本项用法的前提是:在表达的意念中既出现“你的、我的父亲的”的英语词语,又出现“一个,这个、那个、这些、那些”等英语词来修饰和说明人或事务时,就要用上述结构(即 of 后面使用名词所有格、名词性物主代词或“物主代词 + own”,而 of 前的名词前面则出现 a (或 an), this, that, these, those, any, no 等词)。

II. of 短语做后置定语表示特征时的用法举例

a mother of two 有两个孩子的母亲;

a young man of twenty (years of age) [= twenty-year old young man] 一个二十岁的男青年(注意逻辑思维,不能按上例方式理解为“有二十个孩子的男青年”);

two things of the same value 两件价值相同的东西;

matters of this sort (或 of this kind) = this sort (或 this kind) of matters 这种或这类事情等

注:本项用法在表示人的特征时用得较为广泛,以 "She is woman of genius. (她是一位有天才的女人)" 为例,of 后面可用其他许多表示特征的名词或短语来描述。例如:a woman of action (或 remarkable imagination, progressive views, great energy, excellent gifts, immense capacity, leisure 等);就可分别译为“一位实干(或有非凡想像力、有进步思想观点、精力充沛、很有天赋、很有能力、悠闲等)的女人。”

III. of 短语做表语表示属性和特征时用法举例

be of one family(我们)是一家人;

be of European origin(他们)都属欧洲种族;

be of a new type(这台机器)是新型的;

be of the same opinion(他们)意见相同;

be of the same size (或 color)(这些鞋)的尺寸(或颜色等)相同;

be of very much value(某项工作等)有很大价值;

be of no use(或 no good, no avail)to sb.(急救措施等)对某人无用(或无效);

be of a different way of thinking(某人)有一种不同的思想方法等

注 1:注意上述“系动词 + 表语”结构可转化做宾语补语。特别注意宾语补语中的 be 的相应形式省略时常引起难点。例如:He found himself of two absolutely contradictory points of view. 他发现自己具有两种绝对对立的观点。(of 短语做表语和宾语补语。of 前面未用 to be。)

注 2:注意短语做表语和宾语补语时省略的情况。例如:

1)We think the two boxes exactly the same weight. 我们认为这两个箱子的重量完全相等。(句中 the same weight 前省略 to be 和 of。)

2)It is no use (或 no good) working at this problem. 研究这个问题没有用。(no use 前面省略 of。)

3)It will be much help to us for you to give a talk. 由你讲话将对我们有很大帮助。(much help 前省略 of。)

二、of 表示同位关系时的用法举例(附:夹带 of 短语的名词性词组做前置定语--前置定语的新发展)

the city of Beijing 北京市;

the county of Baodi 宝坻县;

the room temperature of 20℃ 室温 20℃;

a voltage of 110v. 110 伏电压;

a giant of American officer 一个大个子美国军官;

the question of how to work out the plan 如何制定计划的问题[of 后的“疑问词 + 不定式”顶一个名词,作 question 的同位语];

the process of one substance mixing with another 一种物质同另一种物质混合的过程[of 后面的复合结构可视为前面 process 的同位语]等

注 1:以地名作为某行政单位、某公司、某工厂的名称时,可以直接带 of 短语作前置定语。例如:

the City of Tianjin Notary Public Office 天津市公证处[不能按传统语法把后面的 of 短语理解为修饰 of 前的名词];

the County of Yutian Food Company 玉田县食品公司。但目前国内有些单位名称没有按上述格式和其它格式将市、县、村译成英语,结果造成国外不知我们的单位名称是什么意思,即使知道是中国国内地名,也不知它们是哪一层次地名。例如在一份厂名录上印 "Wuxi Chemical Machinery Plant",外国人不知道 Wuxi 是什么意思,而中国人不清楚指无锡市还是无锡县。后打听到是指“无锡市化工机械厂。”那就应该译为:The City of Wuxi (或 Wuxi City) Chemical Machinery Plant.

注 2:有些含有机关、单位名称或有些含有介词短语的名词性词组都还可直接作后面的名词及其短语的前置定语。有时还可扩展用到单纯的介词短语(中间常用连字符)直接作前置定语。例如:

a Florida House of Representatives employee 一位弗罗里达州众议院的雇员;

the Republic of Republic of Poland Trade Center 波兰共和国贸易中心;

out-of-work iron workers 失业的钢铁工人;

lack of experience difficulties 缺乏经验的困难[常用于工作注意事项中,在这一标题下就会列举出缺乏经验而引起的种种困难。若用 difficulties due to a lack of experience 则译为“由于缺乏经验而引起的困难”,侧重强调“缺乏经验”这一原因。]

注 3:夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语并不限于中间夹带 of 短语。这是当前英语名词作前置定语的新发展。目前国内英语教学和教材中基本上没有反映。本书另设专题讨论。(详见第 69 节、二)

三、of 短语表示部分和全体的关系;这里 of 本意为“在…中间”

Half of the students present 出席学生的半数[如果作主语,则按复数名词来考虑后面的谓语形式],95 percent of the exam paper 试卷的百分之九十五[如果作主语,则按单数名词来选择后面的谓语形式]等

Hydrogen is the lightest of all elements. 氢是所有元素中最轻的(元素)。

Of the there devices, this one is the newest. 在这三个装置中间,这个装置最新。

Three of us will go to the plant. 我们中间有三个人将去工厂。(如果用 The three of us,则为“我们三个人”,指“我们总共三个人”)

四、of 短语表示数量和种类用法(参阅第 2 节)

五、“a(或物主代词、that 等)+ 名词 + of + a + 名词”结构及其相应的复数结构;这时“a + 名词 + of 等”作“像…般的”讲

a paradise of a house 天堂般的房子;

her angel of a daughter 她那天使般的女儿;

those palaces of houses 那些宫殿式的房子等

注 1:注意 "a devil of a…" 和 "a hell of a…" 结构,其译法很灵活,取决于上下文。例如:a hell of a good car 一辆极好的汽车;a hell of an actor 一个糟糕的(或极好的)演员;have a devil of a time(他)生活过得极其困难或极其有趣等。

注 2:对于下列结构也必须注意逻辑判断。例如:a fraction of a second 就只能理解为“一秒的几分之一”即“几分之一秒”。

六、of 短语用于表示材料、成分、来源等

be built of…(房子等)由(砖、木等)建成;

be composed of…(水)由(氢和氧)组成;

be comprised of…(美国)由(五十个洲)构成;

be formed of…(雨)由(灰尘和水滴)形成;

be made up of…(物质)由(原子)构成;

consist of…(某书等)由(十五章)组成;

make a teacher of sb. 把某人培养成一名教师等

注 1:有时直接用“be of + 材料…”来表示“由什么材料制成”。例如:

1)The bridge is of stone. 该桥由石头砌成。(联系:This is a bridge of stone. 这是一座石头砌成的桥。)

2)The walls are of brick. 墙是砖砌成的。(联系:They are walls of brick. 它们是砖砌的墙。)

注 2:下列的 of 只是在含义上接近于 from(离开)。例如:

1)Now we are within five miles of our destination. 现在我们离目的地在五英里以内。

2)He died within a few days of his eightieth birthday. 他死的日期离八十寿辰只差几天。

3)Let go of the rope. 松手放开绳子。(句中 of 还可省略,但不能用 from 代替。)

4)It lacks five minutes of ten. 现在十点差五分。(句中 of 表示“离开”之意,但不可用 from 代替,却可用 to 代替,表示“差五分就到十点”。)

5)This factory is about 100 miles east of the capital. 这家工厂在首都以东约 100 英里的地方。(和上句同理,但不能用 from 代替 of。)

注 3:注意有些短语内用 of 和 from 还有些差别。例如:

1)This chair is made of wood. 这张椅子由木头制成。(不能用 from 代替 of,因椅子仍具有木的性质)。

2)Beer is made from rice and wheat. 啤酒由米和麦子制成。(不能用 of 代替 from,因啤酒已不具有米和麦子的性质,这里已发生了化学变化。)

七、of 作“对于”和“因为”等讲时跟作表语的形容词搭配用法举例

Ⅰ. 表示害怕方面

be afraid of… 害怕(蛇、狗等);

be fearful of… 害怕或担心(罢工等);

be frightened of… 惧怕(雷、蛇等)[注意 be threatened with penalties (或 a beating 等)]作“害怕被罚款(或挨打等)”讲,却不能用 of 代 with]

II. 表示确信、自信、意识到等方面

be certain (或 sure, positive) of… 确信(成功等),对(胜利等)有把握[联系:make sure (或 certain) of… 弄清(事实、开车时刻等)];

be confident of… 自信(通过考试等);

be hopeful of… 对(成功等)抱有希望;

be conscious of… 意识到(自己的缺点等);

be aware of… 意识到或知道(某事实、已发生的事故)等

III. 表示喜爱、羡慕、骄傲、羞愧、疑惑等方面

be fond of… 喜欢或酷爱(某人、游戏等);

be proud of… 为(祖国)感到骄傲;

be envious of… 羡慕或嫉妒(某人);

be jealous of… 嫉妒(别人的成功)[与 envious 不同,jealous 常用于贬义]等

注:大多数上述形容词作表语时,后面可不用 of 而直接通过 that 引导从句,有时连词 that 也可省略。例如:

1)I am afraid (that) I can't go there tomorrow. 我怕明天不能去那边。

2)She is sure (that) you will win the game。他确信你们能赢这场比赛。

Ⅳ. 表示对某事理解或反应的敏捷或迟钝方面

be quick of temper (或 sight)(某人)易于发脾气(或眼睛敏锐、视觉敏捷);

be slow (或 dull) of apprehension(某人)理解慢(或迟钝)等

Ⅴ. 用于表示充满、短缺、节省等方面

be full of…(某人)满怀着(希望、同情等),(房间等)挤满(人);

be short of… 短缺(劳动力、钱等);

be economical of one’s time 节省自己的时间等

Ⅵ. 用于表示忍受痛苦和犯有过错等方面

be patient of… 能忍受(痛苦等);

be guilty of… 犯有(某种罪或过失等),错在(低估某人或对困难估计不足)[of 后也可接动名词短语]等

八、动词和 of 连用,of 短语表示原因,这时 of 具有“出于…”含义

come of carelessness(事故)出于粗枝大叶;

die (或 perish) of one’s wound 由于受伤死亡或丧命;

marry sb. of one's choice 自愿和某人结婚;

be born of…(某想法)出自(帮助病人的愿望)等

九、和有关动词连用时,of 有时作“涉及到”中的“到”讲,类似于 about(关于、有关)的用法,常可译为“听到、讲到、说到、想到、读到”等,当然还有其它一些译法

hear of… 听到(这个消息等);

know of… 知道有(某物、困难)的存在,听说过(某人);

say of… 谈到(你的母亲或她的健康等);

say nothing of… 更不用说(某人、某事);

speak of… 讲到(某人、某物);

think of… 想到或想起(某人或某事),惦念(某人等),想到或打算(做某事)[of 后用动名词短语];

think much (或 well, highly) of… 对(某人、某事)很赞赏或评价高;

think little (或 badly) of… 对(某人、某事)评价不好或不赞成;

talk of… 谈到(某人、某事);

treat of… 涉及(现代音乐或某问题等);

write of… 写到(某人、某事)等

注:注意 of 的另一种类似用法,其句型是“有关动词 (如 remind, warn, inform 等) + 直接宾语 sb. + of…”。例如:accuse sb. of… 控告某人(偷钱、破坏合同等);convince sb. of… 使某人确信(成功等);inform sb. of… 通知某人(某计划、某人到达等);remind sb. of… 使某人回忆起(青年时代等);warn sb. of… 警告或预先告知某人有(危险、反对意见);tell sb. of… 告诉某人(我们的计划)等

十、of 短语与有关动词搭配,表示“分离、摆脱、解脱”之意

acquit sb. of… [接 the crime, murder 等]宣告某人(无罪或无谋杀罪等)[但 acquit oneself of a duty 等,则为“履行职责”等];

break sb. of… 使某人改掉或戒掉(吸烟、坏习惯等);

cleanse … (如 rivers, heart 等) of… 清除(江河)中(有毒物质等),清除(心)中(内疚即 guilt);

cure (或 heal) sb. of…治愈某人(疾病、坏习惯等);

relieve sb. of… 解除某人(职务、痛苦等);

rid sb. of… 使某人摆脱、解除、除掉(痛苦等)[其被动态为 get (或 be) rid of…,表示:摆脱(某人),解除(痛苦等),除掉(昆虫等)];

rob sb. of… 抢某人(钱款等)[但“偷某人钱”却用 steal money from sb. ];

strip A of… 剥掉香蕉(皮即 its skin),摘掉树上(叶子),脱去背部上(背心)[这里 A 分别为香蕉、树或背部]等

十一、注意“the + 具有动作意义的名词 + of + 名词”的结构,最后一个名词多半是行为对象(见 A),而原动词的搭配关系还可以保留在该词组后面(见 B),但也有是行为主体的(见 C),只能根据上下文进行逻辑判断

A. the use of the new machine 新机器的使用;the invasion of Kuwait 入侵科威特;the study of English 英语学习;the criticisms of the novels 对小说的一些批评等

B. the action of another force on a body 另一个力对物体的作用,the combination of theory with practice 理论和实践的结合等

C. the love of mother for the children 母亲对孩子的爱[联系 have a love for mother为“(孩子)爱母亲”];have the respect of all the students(某人)受到所有学生的尊敬[但 have respect for the teachers 为“(学生)尊敬老师”]等

D. make a study of sth. 对某事进行研究;make an adjustment of the instrument 对仪表进行调节[这里 make 作“进行”和“作”讲]等

十二、“主语 + be + 不定量词 + of + a + 名词”的用法举例

She is something of a chemist. 她是个不错的化学家。

He is very much of a scholar. 他很有学问。

She is nothing of a chemist. 她一点也不懂化学。

He is a bit of everything. 他什么都懂得一点.

This is something of a disappointment. 这是件相当使人失望的事。

注 1:本句型中 be 换成 have,后面用“in 或 on + sb. 或其代词”,则变为另一种表示法:(联系第 79 节、一 的注)

1)She has something of a chemist in her. 她颇有化学家的素质。

2)He has much of a chemist in him. 他很有化学家才华。

注 2:本句型中 be 换成 see 等动词时,句义又有些不同。例如:

1)I see a great deal of him. 我常见到他。

2)I have seen little of him of late. 我近来很少见到他。

注 3:注意 "something of a…" 还可发展到整个短语做后面另一名词的前置定语。例如:She was something of a problem pupil when Mary was nine. 玛丽九岁时是一个相当难管的小学生。

十三、of 与其它动词构成的常用固定短语(见 A)及其它的 of 固定短语(见 B)

A. of 与其它动词构成的常用固定短语

admit (或 allow) of…(接动名词或名词)(合同等)留有(做某事)余地,(某任务等)留有(延缓即 delay)余地;

approve of…赞成(某计划等)[注意 approve sth. 常作“批准…”讲];

inquire of sb. + sth. (或 about sth.) 询问某人(去邮局的路即 the way to the post office),向某人了解(有关去上海的火车即 about the trains for Shanghai);

be possessed of…(某人)拥有(大量的词汇,良好的健康等);

smell of…(空气)发出(油漆即 paint 等)气味;

taste of…(奶油即 the butter)带有(桔子即 orange)味道等

B. 其它的 of 固定短语

of course 当然;

of late 最近,近年来 all of a sudden 突然;

of one’s own accord (或 will) 自愿的,主动的;

instead of… 代替…,而不是…;

in place of… 代替…[最后两短语用法见注]。

注:instead of 不仅可接名词、代词及其相应词组,还可接与句中某成分相应的形容词、副词、介词短语,有时甚至可接动名词或动词。但是 in place of 后面只能接名词或代词,而且只含有“代替……”之意,却没有“而不是……”用法。例如:

1)We decided to use electricity instead of steam power. 那时我们决定用电来代替蒸汽动力。(也可用 in place of 替换)

2)Things are now better instead of worse. 现在情况好转,而不是变坏。(不能用 in place of 代替,因 worse 不是名词,况且 in place of 不能作“而不是”讲。)

3)At high altitudes, the air pressure is low, so water will boil at temperatures below instead of at 100℃. 在海拔高处,气压很低,因此水的沸点是摄氏 100 度以下,而不是 100 度。(不能用 in place of 替换,理由和前句相同。)

十四、由 of 引出动词不定式的逻辑主体的用法特点,参阅第 53 节、三-Ⅱ。

Off 的用法及其固定短语的分类理解和判断

off 是介词兼副词,搭配广泛,用法灵活。为了便于理解和记忆,拟采用介词和副词用法交替讨论,这样会有利于从英语角度去理解其来龙去脉。

一、off 的介词和副词用法比较(以“从……下来”为例)

Come off…(封面或把手等)从(书或门)上掉下来;

fall off…(画等)从(墙)上掉下来;

get off… = drop off…下(火车、公共汽车、飞机等公共交通工具以及摩托车和自行车等)[但必须说 get out of the car 下(私人)汽车];

nip the leaves off the branch(= nip the leave off from the branch)从树枝上掐下叶子;

take (或 knock, cut) 40% off the regular price 按原价打六折[由“从原价上拿下 40%”引申过来];

wipe the dust off the cap 掸去帽子上的灰尘等

注 1:在上下文清楚情况下,完全可以把上述固定短语中的介词 off 后的介词宾语去掉,于是 off 就起副词作用。例如:

1)The handle came off. 把手下来了。

2)The map fell (或 dropped) off. 这张地图掉下来了。

3)a. We got on the bus at eight o’clock and got off at nine. 我们八点上公共汽车,九点下车。

b. She got her ring off (her finger)。她把戒指摘下来了。

4)a. They took (knocked, cut) 40% off. 他们打了六折(或减下去 40%)。

b. In this shop everything has 40% taken (cut, knocked) off. 这家商店内全部商品减价 40%。

5)She wiped off the dust. 她掸掉了灰尘。

注 2:注意有时有例外情况:Step off the pavement 从人行道上走下来;但 step off 两词用于军事操练场上,则就变成为“开始齐步走”,因这时副词 off 表示“离开、出发”之意。同时也得注意在 strike off the branch(把这个树枝打断或砍掉)中的 off 不是介词,而是副词,因此也可置于 branch 之后。

注 3:注意有时动词后的 off 纯粹做副词(表示“下来”或“下去”),并且无相应介词 off 的搭配用法。例如:clear off(云等)消散,(雨、雪)停下来转晴;level off(价格等)稳定下来[由“变得平坦和平整”引申过来]等

二、介词 off 短语与有关动词搭配有表示“从…下来”引申到表示“离开”和表示空间和时间上的距离(如“离…不远、在…附近”等),并且还可转译为“离题、不上(班)、失去(平衡)、戒(烟)”等方面

the post office off the main street 位于主要街道附近的(或离主要街道不远的)邮局;

be off the playground(大楼等)离操场不远;

live far off (或 far (away) from) the hometown 住在远离故乡的地方;

sink two miles off the coast(某船)沉于离海岸 2 英里的地方;

It is a few minutes off (或 to) nine o’clock. 现在九点差几分。[注意用 off 和 to 的用法及计时角度各异:off 表示“离”,而 to 表示“到”。)be off the subject(演讲等)离题,be (或 come) off duty 不值勤(或下班);

get off work 下班[直译为:离开工作];

get off balance 失去平衡;

be off one’s head(或 nut)神经错乱,丧失理智;

be off the record(某些材料等)不宜发表,不可外传,是非正式的[由“不可记载”引申过来];

be off smoking (或 bridge) 戒掉吸烟(或不再玩桥牌);

be off the medicine 不再用这药;

will be off the press soon(书等)很快就要印好;

take sb. off the medicine 使某人停止服这药;

Keep off the grass 勿践踏草地等

注 1:take the clothes off 和 take off the clothes 表达方法不同,但均作“脱下这些衣服”讲。这里两个 off 均做副词用。但是 take the clothes off the line 就变为“从绳子上拿下晾晒的衣服”,其中 off 为介词。

注 2:在口语中介词 off 有时作“从…(那里)”讲,相当于 from 的用法。例如:borrow some money off (或 form) sb. 向某人借些钱;buy sth. off (或 from) sb. 从某人处买来某物等。但是要注意上下文,buy off 后接 trouble,则为“出钱摆脱困境”。buy sb. off (或 over) 则为“收买某人”。这里 off 均作“离开”讲,跟 buy 构成的形象极为明显:“出钱将某人买下或买过来”。

三、副词 off 表示“空间或时间上的距离”用法举例

副词 off 表示“空间和时间上的距离”只是用在一定上下文中未提及所离开的某地、某时而已。因此,这里副词可以理解为在一定上下文中省略介词 off 后的宾语后演变过来的。例如:be 50 miles off(某河流等)离此五千英里;

lie off(船等)停在离陆地或其他船不远处(结合上下文省略了“陆地、其它船”等词语);

be located some distance off(家乡等)离这里有一段距离;

see the sea far off 看见远处的大海;

be far (或 a long way, aweek) off(某节日)距今很远(或一周)等。

四、副词 off 用于“离开、动身”时的动词短语用法举例

come off with sb.(我)和某人一齐离开(因为房间里太热等);

drive off 驱车离去;

go off(某人)离开或出发,(演员)下场或(某人)死去[结合上下文选择词义]。还有其他含义,例如主语为 bread(面包)和 quality(质量)时,则转义为“面包变质”和“质量变坏”;

lead off(谁)来开个头[由“带头走”引申过来];

let sb. off 放走某人[由“让某人离开”引申过来];

move off(部队)出发,(火车等)开走,(某人)死去;

pair off(青年男女)一对一对地离去;

push off 离开,启程[由“推开而去”引申过来];

see sb. off 送别(某人);

set off 出发,动身;

shoot off(小偷、兔子等)迅速跑走[可联想“发射速度之快”。但 shoot fire crackers off 为“燃放鞭炮”,而 shoot sb’s leg 或 house 则为“用枪炮打断某人一条腿或击毁某人的房子”。为此,必须用英语思维并注意上下文];

start off(某人)启程出发,(兔子闻到狗味)迅速离去;

take off 起飞,(某人)动身去(某地)[后接 for + 某地];

tear off(某人一见到狗就)急忙走掉,飞快跑掉或迅速驶离[这里 tear off 由“撕扯”转义“急忙离开”,译文中的“急忙、飞快”或“迅速”正体现“撕”的用力和速度];

walk off 走开,步行离开等

注 1:上述固定短语中的副词 off 表示“离开”,而动词表示各种色彩的“离开”、“启程”、“动身”。若单纯表示“离开”,还可用 be off 等表示。这时说话侧重于转入“离开”这一状态。例如:

1)I must be off now. 现在我必须离开。

2)She asks(或 begs)off. 他请求离开(或请假)。

3)I wrote 5 letters in my off hours. 我用了业余时间写了五封信。(句中 off 作定语。)

注 2:注意及物动词 touch off… = spark off… 作“燃放(爆竹等)”,“触发(一场辩论、动乱、战争等)”讲,这系由“一接触而开始引发…”引申过来。其中 off 的用法与 set… off(使…爆发,激起…)中 off 的用法相同。

注 3:表示“离开”的短语动词不限于包含 off,有时还可用 out,away 等。参阅第 87 节。

五、副词 off 用于“关闭、关(灯)”时的动词短语用法举例。这里 off 表示断开(电路或管路等),而动词表示行为方式

cut off… 关掉(电动机等)[由“切、砍方式断开电路→关掉…”引申过来];

go off(电、煤气等)停(或断)了;

leave… off 关掉(水泵等),让(煤气等)关着;

put off… 关闭(电灯等);

shut off… 关闭(录音机、可怕的音乐等);

switch off… 关掉(电视机等);

turn off… 关(无线电等)[由“转动电钮关掉…”引申过来];

ring off… 挂断电话[由“旧式电话以铃声响表示电话挂断”引申过来。但也可用 hang up 来代替。这与当初电话挂在墙上高处,人们要把话筒 (receiver) “往上挂才能挂掉电话”有关]等

六、副词 off 用于“从上面下来”或“…出”时的动词短语用法举例

blow (或 take)… off(大风)把(屋顶即 the roof)刮下来;

get off 下公共汽车(船、飞机、火车等公共交通工具);

learn off… 把(故事、课文等)背熟或记住[由“把…学下来”引申过来];

pick (或 take, pluck) apples off 摘(下)苹果;

read off… 流畅读出(名单上的所有姓名、某通知等)[实系“把…从头到尾读下来”] show off… 显示出或衬托出(优点),炫耀(新车)、展出(产品);

tell sb. off 责备或数落(某人)[即“把某人数落下来”];

be told off to do sth. (或 for sth.)(某人)被叫出作某事等

七、副词 off 用于“脱去(衣、鞋、帽)”时的动词短语用法举例,其中动词表示行为方式

cast off… 很快脱下(冬衣)扔在一旁;

get off… 脱去(衣服等);

leave… off 脱下(冬衣等)不再穿,中断(录音机等),改掉(坏习惯等);

pull off… 脱去(毛衣、手套等)[用 pull(拉、拽)体现“脱”的动作有些费力];

put off… 脱下(衣、帽等);

take off… 脱掉(衬衫等);

throw off… 迅速脱去(帽、鞋等)[英语用 throw(“扔”动作需要力量和速度)来表示“脱”的动作“迅速”];

tear off… 把(套袖等)拽下来;

slip off… 迅速脱下(和服等)[“迅速脱下”中的“迅速”两字出于 slip 本义作“滑动”讲,表示脱衣时摩擦极小。还可用 slip out of a kimono 表示之,因为反义词语“穿和服”可用 slip into… 表示];

draw off… 脱掉(鞋等)[从 draw 作“拔、拉”讲,可看出脱鞋有点费力];

have… off(风等)把(帽子等)吹走;

help (sb.) off with… 帮助(某人)脱去(毛衣、鞋)等

八、副词 off 用于“刪掉、略去、勾销”时的动词短语用法举例

cross… off (或 out) 删去(某词、句)[cross 是“对某词句打 ‘×’ ”,连用 off 是“将某词句去掉”];

score… off(或out, through)划掉或划去(这些句子等)[连用 through 表示“从中间划横线通过”以示“划掉”];

strike off… 划掉(某人名字),免去(债务即 the debt);

take off… from… 从(菜单即 the menu)上划掉(这个道菜等);

write off 勾销(债务),抹煞(成就即 achievements);

wipe off… 勾销(债务)等

注:表示“删掉、略去”的固定短语不限于用 off。有时还可用副词 out, through, over, down 与有关动词相搭配的固定短语来表示,约二十多个。详见专题“Out 用法”(第 87 节)。这时所搭配的动词都表示行为方式。

九、副词 off 表示“…掉、…走”时的动词短语用法举例

blast (vt. vi.) off… 炸掉(高楼)[主语为宇宙飞船,则为“用火箭起飞升空”,off 表示“离开地面”];

blow off… (风)吹或刮走(帽子),(炸药)炸掉(屋顶);

break off(会议)终止,中断或突然休会;

break off… 折断(树枝),中断(某人讲话);

抛弃(坏习惯),解除(婚约);

brush off… 刷去(灰尘),把(某人)毫不客气地打发走;

burn off… 烧掉(树叶),(用 it 表示天气)转晴;

call off… 把(某人)叫走,取消(会议、罢工等);

carry off… 搬走或运走(枪支),抓走(小偷即 the thief),拿走或夺得(奖章),(癌症)夺走(某人)生命;

check off (或 out) = book off 下班[联系反义短语 check in 和 book in 作“报到、签到”讲,而 check out 作“办理手续离开旅馆等”讲];

fling off… 甩掉(跟踪者等),抛开(所有约束等),匆匆地脱掉(外衣等);

kill off… 大批杀死或消灭(害虫等),打消(某计划等);

knock off… 减价(50%),扣掉(五美元)打掉(玻璃杯即 a glass);

pay off… = clear off 付出或还掉(50 元或某人的债);

put… off 延期或推迟(会议)[由“将会议往下方或往后退”引申过来],阻止或妨碍(某人);

rub off… 擦掉(油漆),擦掉(某词);

sell off… 卖掉或廉价卖掉(家具);

send off… 寄走(信件),派遣或送走(某人),打发走(某人)[有时有“解雇、开除”含义];

ship off… 用船运走(机器等);

strip off… 剥去(表面现象);

take off… 截去(手指、腿),带走(某人);

wear off(油漆、药效、痛苦)逐渐消退或消失;

wipe off… 抹掉或擦掉(灰尘、泥污);

work off… 发泄掉(怒气),销售掉(书刊),完成(某些要求),处理(紧急信件),干活偿还(债务)[可从 work 和 off 本义去体会上述用法由来];

write off…(保险公司)勾销或注销(撞毁的汽车、债务),抹煞(某人成就)等

十、副词 off 表示“隔开、依然保持一定距离”时的动词短语用法举例

close off… 封锁(街道),使(某区)与外界隔绝[直意是:封闭(某区)使之与外界隔绝。可理解为介词短语 off the outside world 简化为副词 off];

be out off from… 和(外界即 the outside world)隔绝;

fence off 用栏杆把(牛群即 the cattle)与外面隔开[联系:fence in (adv.) the cattle 用栏杆把牛群围在里面],回避(某问题等)[引申用法,off 后接 the problem];

hold off(雨等)暂时不下,(买主)迟疑[由对某动作的实现“仍然持一定距离”引申过来];

hold off…(接名词或动名词短语)(傲慢)使(人)不敢接近或挡住(人),(我)推迟(自己的决定或做某事);

keep… off 避开(感染、饥饿、危险),不提及(某问题),避开(太阳),(火)使(野兽)不走进[off 为副词,表示“使…不靠近或隔离”];

rope off… 用绳子把(某区域)隔离起来;

stand off 停着不靠近,与人们疏远等

十一、副词 off 用于“休假、收工”时的动词短语用法举例

take a few days off 请几天假;

leave off work at 18 o’clock(他们)18 点收工[由 leave off 作“停止…”讲引申过来。又如,"The rain has left off" 为“雨停了”];

ask for two days off(某人)请求给二天假;

go for a walk on one’s evening off(某人)傍晚不上班时出外散步等

十二、副词 off 用于“完成、成功”时的短语用法举例。但这里的“成功”大多数用于难度大而几经周折后办成的事

bring off… 做成功(一笔难度大的生意[a deal]或某件困难的事等),救出(某人)[“救”字本身就体现有一定难度];

carry… off 办成或实现(一个艰难的任务、计划等),拿走或夺得(三块金牌等)[其他用法:(心脏病等)夺走(不少人)生命,(盗贼)夺走(五匹马),搬走(垃圾即 rubbish)];

come off well(试验等)做成[有时后面不出现 well 仍表示做成功。例如:(婚礼即 the wedding)(经两次推迟后)举办,(大胆的想法)实现[注意若主语为戏剧、电影等,come off 则作“停止上演”讲];

go off well(音乐会等)开得很成功;

drink off… 喝完(一杯茶)[但 eat (vi.) off 却为 eat one’s head(s) off 作“(小孩、牛、马等)食量大,吃得很费”讲];

finish off… 完成(工作、设计等),吃完(食物);

kill off… 杀灭(苍蝇即 flies 等);

knock off… 匆忙做完(作业等),匆忙写完(一本书等);

pass off well(这个会议)开得很好,(你的表演等)很成功;

pull off…(某人)将(难度大的计划、交易、资助等)办成,(某人)成功地通过(较难的考试等);

write off a poem 轻而易举写出一首诗等

注:从广义上讲,在 tear off a letter(匆忙写完一封信)和 turn off a lot of work(做完许多工作)中的 off 似乎以“完成”含义译出,其实 off 英语本义仍在其中,即“从…上把一封信撕下”表示写完或把“某工作对付下去”(或“对付出去”)表示完成。

十三、副词 off 作表语时的多种含义的理解和判断

副词 off 作表语是多义词。必须根据前面各个搭配中 off 的用法选择其词义。现分下列两类进行讨论。

I. 副词 off 作表语用于表示“处境好坏”或“经济状况好坏”含义的理解这里 off 有“过得去”含义,靠 off 前面的副词来表示其程度。例如:

He is quite well off. 他情况相当不错。

She was even worse off than you. 当时她处境比你更困难。

II. 副词 off 作表语用于其他情况下的短语用法举例

I must be off now for Shanghai. 我现在必须动身去上海。(off 表示“离开”。联系:set off for… 出发去某地,start off for… 动身去某地等。)

The meeting is off. 会议取消了。(off 表示“去掉”。联系:call off… 取消(某比赛等),declare off… 宣布取消(某协议等)。)

The lid is off. 这个盖子掉了。(off 作“离开、下来”讲。联系:The lid came(或 fell, dropped)off.)

His coat was on, but the cap was off. 当时他外衣穿着,但帽子脱下了。(off 表示“脱下”讲。联系:take(或 get, put 等)off… 脱掉(衬衫等)。)

The motor is off. 这台马达停着。(off 作“关”讲。联系:turn(或 switch 等)off… 关(电灯等)。)

I’m sorry, sir, but the snake’s off. 先生,很抱歉,蛇没有了。(off 作“删掉”讲。联系 be off the menu(某道菜)从菜单中去掉,或 strike(或 take)off… 划掉(某菜名等)。)

My answer is slightly off. 我的答案有点离谱。(off 作“偏离”讲。联系:Her speech is off the subject. 她的演讲偏离正题。)

Keep off! 别靠近![off 表示“隔开一段距离”。联系:Keep the children off the fire. 别让小孩靠近炉火!)

Stocks are off. 股票行节下跌。(off 作“下来”讲。联系:Stocks have fallen (或 dropped) off. 股票行市已经下跌。)

His cream is off. 他的奶油变质了。(联系:This cream has gone off. 这个奶油已变质了。)

On 和 Upon 的用法及其固定短语的分类理解和判断

On(介词)作“在…上”讲,但其用法远远不限于此。加上 on 还兼作副词用,其用法也有许多种。再加上 upon 有时可代替介词 on。此外,on 与各种有关动词连用时还体现出 on 的丰富多彩的功能性用法。现按 on 作介词的用法(见第一项到第十三项)和作副词的用法(见第十四项到第十七项)以及“on to 和 onto 用法异同”与 “on 和 upon 用法比较”进行分类阐述。

一、介词 on 作“在……上面、在(某人)身上”或“朝向…”讲

这种用法十分广泛,只要合乎逻辑,一般都可用这种 on 短语。例如:There is a book on the desk. 书桌上有一本书。Bid on…(许多公司)投标争取承包(地铁即 metro)工程;

lay the blame on sb. 归咎于某人(身上);

put (或 place, exert) the pressure on sb. 向某人施加压力;

lay (或 put, place) a tax on liquor 对酒征税;

enter on… 走上(新时代即 a new age);

cast (或 throw, shed) light on (或 upon)… 照亮(某人、某物)[由“将光投射在某人、某物上”引申过来],阐明(某事);

put the project on ice 搁置这个项目[近似于汉语“把…打入冷宫”之意];

place one’s hopes on sb. 把希望寄托在(小孩)身上;

look on…(窗户等)朝向(东即 the east 等);

open on…(这门)通向(街道);

operate on (或 upon)… 对(肺、心等)动手术[由“在…上动手术”引申过来];

put (或 place)… on… 把(书等)放在(桌子)上;

sit (或 serve) on the committee 当委员;

step on the gas 踩汽车油门,加快速度赶路;

win on (或 upon) sb.(某观点等)获得某人好感或在某人身上产生吸引力[由“在某人身上获胜”引申过来];

work on (或 upon)… 对(某人)做工作,写(报告),清洗(汽车)[都由“在…上做工作或下功夫”引申过来],在(农场)工作等

注:下列头三个句子都是 "have… on sb." 结构,其中 on sb. 均作“在某人身上”讲。由于上下文不同,译成汉语文字就各异。例如:

1)He has some money on him。他身上有点钱。(可用 with 或 about 代替 on。)

2)Have another cup of coffee on me. 再来一杯咖啡,由我支付。(即“…算在我身上”。联系:The dinner is on me. 这顿饭由我请客。)

3)If you show up again, I will have the police on you。如果你再露面,我会让警察跟踪你。

二、介词 on 和有关动词连用,表示“上车、上船、上台、上场、上演”等意思

get on… 上(公共汽车、火车、飞机等);

get only forty people on (或 onto) the bus 只能让四十个人上这辆公共汽车;

take sb. on the train(某人)带(小孩)上火车等

注:注意 get on 后面接的是公共交通工具(如公共汽车、火车等)。若乘坐私人汽车,则要用 get in (或 into) the car 表示。ride on the horse 为“骑马或乘马旅行”,现已推广到 ride on the bus (或 the train),并且其中 on 还都可省略。be on board a ship(他们)上了船或在船上[侧重状态。注意 board 后无介词];

go (或 go) on board a ship 乘船或上船[侧重动作。若 …board 后接 the train 或 the airplane,则整个短语便为“上这趟列车,上这次航班”];

get (或 go) on the stage(某人)登台演出;

put a play on the stage 上演一出戏等。

三、介词 on 与有关动词连用作“集中在…上、在…上强调”讲

concentrate one’s attention (或 efforts, thoughts) on (或 upon)…(某人)将注意力(或精力、心思等)集中在(某项任务)上[也可直接用 concentrate on… 表示];

center on (或 upon)…(某人思想)集中于(一个打算即 one idea);

direct one’s thoughts on (或 at)… 集中精力对准(课题);

fasten (one’s attention) on (或 upon)… 把(注意力)集中在(这本书)上;

fix on (或 upon)…(接名词短语或名词)聚精会神做某事,固定或确定(开会日期等),focus (one’s attention 或 mind) on sth. 集中(注意力或心思)于某事;

keep one’s mind on one’s work(某人)继续专心地做自己的工作;

place (或 put) emphasis (或 stress) on (或 upon)… 将重点放在(考试等)上,着重强调(外语)等

四、介词 on 后接线状物的名词(如江河、道路、边界等),表示“邻接、濒临或接壤这些地方”

row a boat on the lake 在湖上划船;

be on the river(房屋或某城市等)位于该江河一带[注意决不要理解为“…位于江河上”];

be on the road(这旅店)位于路旁;

be the countries on the Pacific(它们)是太平洋沿岸的国家;

London stands on the Thames. 伦敦位于泰晤士河畔。

Canada lies on the north of U.S.A. 加拿大和美国北部接壤。

She often sits on my right in the classroom. 她在教室常坐在我的右边。

注 1:on 作“邻接、濒临”讲,还可引申到“接近、靠近某数字”讲。

1)His manner touches on rudeness. 他的态度接近粗暴。

2)It is just on 10 o’clock. 正好快十点了。

注 2:这种 on 短语有时简化为副词,但仍表示“接近”之意。例如:

1)Winter is drawing on. 冬天快到了。

2)It is just on (或 getting) on (或 for)… 快(9 点钟或 3 万美元等)。

五、介词 on 的短语用于表示时间状语。现分下列两类进行讨论

I. 表示某一日期、星期几及有修饰语的早晨、下午或晚上。

on May 10, 1992 在 1992 年 5 月 10 日;

on Sunday 在星期日;

on the afternoon of the tenth 在 10 日下午;

on the cold evening 在很冷的傍晚;

on New Year’s Eve 在新年前夕等

注 1:注意仍说 in the early morning 不用 on the early morning。

注 2:Weekend 作“周末”讲,由于其后缀为 -end(本意为“末端”),就用介词 at 以突出某个“点”,但美国英语仍用 on。

注 3:我们说 in this case (或 event) 来表示“在该情况下”,但意思相近的 on this occasion 却用了 on, 而不用 in。

注 4:注意 on 用于指日期和星期几,而 in 用于指星期、月份、年份等。但泛指圣诞节、复活节等却用 at, 即 at Christmas (或 Easter)。

II. 用“介词 on 或 upon + 动名词或其短语(或具有动作含义的抽象名词)”表示“一…就”、“在…以后“之意。

On (或 Upon) entering the room we saw her. 一进房间我们就见到了她。

The performance began on our entrance. 我们一入场,节目表演就开始了。

On (或 Upon) my returning home I did that. 我回到家后做了那件事。

Samples will be sent without cost on request. 样品一经索取即免费奉赠。

On (或 Upon) Mr White arriving here,we immediately phoned him. 在怀特先生抵达这里后,我们立即给他打了电话。

六、介词 on 与有关动词连用,表示“依靠、以…为基础、根据或按照、在…下”,其中“在…下”还含有原因的意思

act on (或 upon)… 按照(某人的指示、劝告、建议等)办事或行动[若 on 后为 heart, tooth, 则为(药品等)对心脏、牙齿有作用];

be based on…(计划、希望等)是以(信息、成果)为基础的;

build on…(某人)指靠(你们的支持、帮助等);

count (或 calculate, figure) on… 指望或算计靠(某人的支持或你帮助他即 your helping him 等);

depend (或 rely) on… 依赖于(某人),取决于(产品质量等);

go on…(理论等)以(事实、实验结果等)为依据;

feed on…(牛羊)以 (草即 straw) 为食物;

live on… 靠(工资、食物等)生活;

lean on…(某人)靠在(桌子)上,拄着(手杖即 a stick),依赖(别人等);

rest on…信赖(某人诺言、理论等),依赖于(实践等);

turn on… 取决于(天气等)[由“靠…来转动”引申过来],(轮子)以(轴)为中心转动等

七、介词 on 短语表示目的状语,这时其动词常为 come, go, enter, journey, leave, plan, send, visit等,而这时 on 的介词宾语常为 trip, picnic, business, holiday 等

come on visit to Tianjin 来天津访问;

enter on a long journey 开始长途旅行;

go on holiday (summer vacation) 度假,休假或度(暑假);

visit the hometown on sick leave 访问故乡休病假;

leave on business 去出差;

send… on an expedition 派(军队)去远征,派(科学家)去考察等

八、介词 on 用于“影响、同情、怜悯”等词后,作“对于…”讲。其实质仍是由 on 的本义“在…上”、“朝向…”引申过来

act on…(酒)对(头脑、心脏等)有作用或有影响;

grow on…(服装款式等)对(某人)越来越有影响或吸引力;

have an effect (或 an influence, an impact) on…(通货膨胀即 inflation 等)对(人民生活等)有影响;

You were a bad influence (或 effect) on the other boys. 那时你对其他男孩儿产生了不良影响。operate on (或 upon)… 对(某人想法等)施加影响[由“对…动手术”引申过来];

play on…(闹声即 noise)影响(睡眠即 sleeping 等);

react on (或 upon)…(油价的上涨)反过来对(食品的价格等)有影响[由“对…起反作用”引申过来];

reflect on…(某人粗鲁行为)对(某人自己即 oneself 等)有不利影响;

reflect well on… 对(某人、某事)有好影响;

tell on…(吸烟)对(生活方式即 the way of living)产生不良影响;

work on…(某药)对(某病)有作用或有疗效,对(某人)做工作;

They took (或 had) pity on the girt. 当时他们怜悯(或同情)这个女孩。

九、介词 on 作“就…问题或事情或关于…”讲

congratulate sb. on… 向某人祝贺(成功、生日等)[由“就…向某人祝贺”引申过来];

decide on (或 upon)… 就(某计划或问题)作出决定,(在商店)选定(外衣即 coat);

deliberate on (或 upon)… 商讨(某问题等)[deliberate 本义为“思考”。用 about 代替 on, 则商讨的内容,其专题性不强];

look on (或 upon)… 看待(这件事),(和蔼地)看待(小孩)[后接 kindly. look on (或upon) sb. as… 则为“将某人看作(女儿等)”];

observe on (或 upon)… 谈论或评论(小说、某人优缺点等)[由动词本义为“观察”,结合 on(“就……”),引申为“评论”];

pass (或 pronounce) judgement (或 an opinion) on (或 upon)… 评论(某本书等),对(某问题等)作出判断或发表意见;

remark on (或 upon)…评论(某著作、某人的缺点等)等

注:介词 on 作“就…问题和事情”讲,专题性极强,而 about 作“关于”讲,仅是一般性的涉及。例如:

1)They finished reading a paper on Knowledge Economy. 他们读完了一篇关于“知识经济”的论文。

2)I heard a lot about her from my friends.(当时)我从朋友那里听到不少有关她的事。(不要用 on 代替 about, 因为“她”构不成专题。)

3)She spoke of the dispute in her speech yesterday. 她昨天在讲话中提到了那场辩论。(speak of… 中的 of 作“关于”讲,侧重于“涉及到、提到”,不如 about 作“关于”讲较为详细,但用 about 也构不成“专题性质”。作为专题性质的讲话,就要用 speak on…。见下例。)

4)He spoke on (或 upon) "the Future of Education for Children." 他就“儿童教育前景”作了讲话。(本句用 on 最合适,因为 on 后是专题报告的题目。)

十、介词 on 用于“突然、偶然碰到或发现”时的动词短语汇总(不限于用 on)其中介词 on 仍为本义“在…上、到…上面”或“朝向…”,然后结合有关动词的意思,才引申出“偶然碰见或发现”等含义

chance on (或 upon)… 偶然的碰到(某人),偶然看见(那本书);

come on (或 upon)… 偶然碰到或发现(有价值的照片等)[后接 sb., 则为:(敌人)逼近(某人),(冬天)降临到(我们)这里];

drop on… 意外有幸地发现(一幢好房子等),意外碰到(某人)[但 drop in on sb. 为“顺便访问某人”,而 call on sb. 为“访问某人”];

fall on” (或 upon)… 适逢(某日期),碰巧遇见(某人),(马等)偶然摔倒在(硬地)上;

happen (或 hap) on (或 upon)… 偶然碰见(美国人),偶然发现(那本书);

light on… 偶然碰上或偶然获得(一本好书和一种好办法)[由“(鸟等)停落在…上”引申到“(灾难等)忽然降临在(某人)身上”及“(某人)偶然落脚碰上…”];

strike on… 突然或偶然想到(有效措施),偶然发现(一块表)[联系 strike on rocks 用于“(船等)触礁”,正说明其动作突然和偶然]等

十一、常见的 on 短语作表语(见Ⅰ)和状语(见Ⅱ)的用法

I. 介词 on 短语作表语,表示状态、特征和处境等。

be on the committee(他)当委员或在委员会工作;

be on the staff of the factory(他们)属工厂的职工编制;

be on the editorial board(她)在编辑部工作;

be on duty(某人)在值班;

be on (the) alert(他们)处于戒备状态;

be on the watch for thieves 提防盗贼;

be in Tianjin on business(他们)正在天津出差;

be on the visit to Europe(他)正在欧洲访问;

be in the country on, holiday(我们)在乡下度假;

be on the decrease (或 decline)(死亡率即 the death rate)正在减少;

be on the increase (或 rise)(产量等)正在增加中;

be on the move (营销员即 the salesmen) 在奔波,(江河)在奔流,(科学)在发展,(敌人)在活动,(部队)在调动;

be on fire(房子等)着火;

be on pins and needles(她)坐立不安或如坐针毡;

be on the particular job 从事特殊的工作;

be on the fly(某人)在飞行,(某人)在忙碌;

be on call(护士等)听候召唤;

be on one’s high horse(某人)高傲自大[由比喻“(某人)骑在高大的马上显得很威风”引申过来];

be on sb.’s mind(某事)挂在某人心上。be on sale(这些汽车、书等)正在出售;

be on strike(工人)在罢工,(学生)在罢课;

be on exhibition (或 display)(他们的产品等)正在展览中;

be on the point of leaving(某人)快要离开(或出发等)[表示将来时态的一种句型]等

注:上述作表语的介词 on 短语多半可以转为作后置定语用。例如:many products on exhibition (或 on display, on view) 许多展出的产品;

thousands of workers on strike 举行罢工的成千上万的工人;

a house on fire 一幢着火的房子等

II. 介词 on 短语除了作本专题内前面列出的那些状语用法以外,也可用以表示其它状语(如行为方式、原因、条件、程度等)。在此将一些其它的用法也归并如下:

inform sb. of sth. on (或 over) the telephone 用电话通知某人(这条消息等);

watch the games on television 从电视上看比赛;

listen to the music on (或 over) the radio 通过收音机听音乐;

develop… on a large scale 大规模地发展(农业等);

have 1,000 dollars on deposit(某人)存有一千美元;

leave the office on a pretext(他)找个借口离开办公室;

fight on one’s feet 站着战斗;

return home on foot 步行回家;

set… on fire 放火烧(某物);

be surrounded ring upon ring(敌人等)被重重包围;

work week on week 一周又一周地工作;

We will lend the books to him on condition that he returns them to us next Sunday. 我们可以把这些书借给他,条件是他下星期日要还给我们。

pass the examination on a high standard(某人)考试取得优异成绩;

work on (the 或 an) average about eight hours a day(某人)一天工作约八小时;

accept the cup on be half of… 代表(足球队)领奖杯;

put him on his honour 相信他会尊重自己的名誉,相信他以名誉担保;

be keen on…(某人)特别喜欢(这些冷盘即 the cold dishes 等),(我们)特别想(去那儿里即 going there 等);

on the whole 就整个来说,总的说来等

十二、副词 on 和有关动词连用表示“开灯、开收音机、开煤气、水等”之意。这里副词 on 表示“搭上去(相接触)”,系由其本义“…上去”引申过来

goon(灯)亮,(暖气等)开放,(自来水即 tap water)供应;

leave… on 让(电灯、煤气等)开着;

put on… 开(灯、收音机),开(盒式录音机即 a cassette recorder),上演(戏剧);

stay on(电灯、煤气等)仍然亮着或开着;

switch on… (用电门)开(灯、电视机等);

turn on…(用旋转旋钮的方式)开(灯、录音机等);

The power is on. 电接上了。[若用 The gas, The water, The TV set, 则为“煤气、水或电视机开着。”]

十三、副词 on 表示“继续下去、往前走、往前传”等时的动词短语汇总

carry on 不间断地进行(工作、研究等);

drive on 继续驾车;

follow on(我不在时你)继续做下去;

get on with sth. 继续做(作业即 the homework 等);

go on 走下去,(这项工作等)进行下去[常用进行时];

go on doing sth. (某人)继续作某事;

go on to do sth.(某人)接着做(作业等)[但在这之前不是在做作业];

go on with… 继续进行(某项工作、实验等)[常用进行时];

keep on doing sth. 不断地做某事;

hand (或 pass) on…(把某些材料等)依次传递下去;

hurry on(她)继续匆忙走去;

live on…(年青人应该)继续活着或活下去;

move on 继续前进,出发,(时间)流逝;

press on 继续向前推进;

read on(你)读下去;

run on(我)继续跑,跑下去;

say on 继续说下去;

send the letters on(他)将这些信转寄出去[由“继续寄即再寄…”引申过来];

stay on(她)继续停留,(灯、煤气等)继续亮着或继续开着;

swim on(他们)继续游泳;

talk on 继续谈下去;

walk on 步行走下去;

work on(他们)继续工作等

十四、副词 on 表示“穿戴”时的动词短语汇总

fit (或 try)… on 试穿戴(衣、帽、鞋等);

get… on 穿戴(衣、帽、鞋等);

go on(主语为衣、帽、鞋等)穿得上去;

have… on 穿戴上(衣、帽等);

leave… on 穿着不脱(衣、鞋等),让(灯、煤气)开着;

pull on… 穿上(毛衣、袜子等);

put on… 穿戴(衣、帽等);

stay on(在大风中帽子等)仍然戴着[指“没有被风刮走”];

take on… 穿戴上(衣、帽等);

throw (或 fling) on… 迅速披上(衣服等);

roll on one’s stockings(她)卷裹着穿上长统袜;

a boy with a cap on 一个戴着帽子的男孩等

注:表示“穿戴”的短语不限于用 on, 还可以用 into 和 in。如:jump into one’s cloths 三下两下穿上衣服,get oneself (或sb.) up in a new dress 穿新衣服给自己(或某人)打扮一下,be rolled up in all the clothes 暖暖和和地穿上所有衣服,be in a tweed suit 穿着一套花呢服装,a man in glasses 一个戴着眼镜的男子等

十五、单个副词 on 在句中作表语和后置定语,表示灯、煤气、水等分别“亮着、开着”,衣帽等“穿戴着”,某节目等“在上演”或有某种活动“在发生或进行”的含义。用法虽广泛,但仍可联系上述分类的用法并根据上下文灵活翻译

A. 单个副词 on 作表语。例如:

1)The gas is on. 煤气开着。

2)Then the light came on and stayed on。那时灯亮了,并且保持亮着。

3)His coat (或 hat) was still on. 当时他的外衣还穿着(或他的帽子还戴着)。

4)The war (或 fight) is still on。战争(或战斗)仍在进行。

5)A play of Shakespeare is on today. 今日上演莎士比亚的一个剧。

6)What’s on? 发生什么事?在演什么节目?[根据上下文选择。]

B. 单个 on 作后置定语。例如:

1)There is a new film on at the cinema. 电影院上演一部新电影。

2)I have a lot on this week. 本周我有许多活动要进行。

十六、on to 和 onto 的用法异同

英语原先无 onto 一词,只有 on to 分开来写的形式。onto 是近几十年才形成的新词,在美国用的较为广泛。但 onto 具有口语性质,多用于非正式文体中。例如:

climb on to (或 onto) the roof(猫等)爬到屋顶上;

pour water on to (或 onto) the sponge 把水倒在海绵上;

project a TV picture on to (或 onto) the large screen 将电视片投影到大屏幕上;

sent troops on to (或 onto) the east bank 派部队去东岸;

be on to (或 onto)… 察觉(某人的秘密即 sb.’s secret)

注 1:注意当 on 表示“继续下去”之意,而 to 作介词用时,就不要把 on 和 to 写在一起。例如:They both walked on to the next street. 他俩继续往下走,到了下一条街。(不能用 onto 代替 on to)

注 2:当 on to 中的 to 为不定式动词的柿志,不能用 onto 代替 on to。例如:We went on to read English. 我们接着读英语。

十七、upon 和 on 的用法比较

upon 只能作介词语,其用法和介词 on 相同,但比 on 正式,多见于正式文体中。必须指出,upon 仅在某些情况下可以代替介词 on。而 on 却可在大多数情况下代替 upon。因此,见到 upon 短语时,多半可查阅或套用相应的介词 on 短语的用法,便可理解这些常用短语的含义。同时注意有些短语中不能用 on 代替 upon。例如:once upon a time 前,有一次;

The National Day is almost upon us.国庆节即将来临。

thousands upon thousands of people 成千上万个人[表示叠加]等另一方面,有些使用 on 的短语也不能用 upon 来代替。例如:on no account 决不;

on the contrary 正相反;

on the other hand 另一方面;

on the left 在左边;

on Sunday 在星期日;

on July 21th 在 7 月 21 日;

on time = on schedule 准时;

go on foot 步行走;

A car runs on petrol. 汽车靠汽油行驶。

speak on the telephone 在电话里讲;

be on fire 正在着火;

go on holiday 去度假;

on purpose 有意地,on purpose + 不定式 为了…;

be on sale <美>(这些东西)廉价出售;

be on strike(那些工人)正在罢工等

Once 的用法

一、副词 once 作“一次”、“一遍”、“一倍”讲

Ms. Liao has been to Tianjin once or twice. 廖女士去过一两次天津.

Not once has he done as I have asked. 他从来没有一次(即一次也没有)按我要求去做过。(句首使用否定的状语就要求后面的主谓语倒装。)

Once two is two. 一二得二。

They go on a trip once in a while(或 way). 他们偶尔出去旅行。

Let’s hear you sing once more(或 once again). 让我们听你再唱一次。

Just for once(或 For this once, For that once, For once) she arrived on time. 她只有这一次准时到达了。

He had driven home drunk once too often —— this time he got stopped by the police. 他又一次酒后开车回家,但是这一次被警察拦住了。(once too often 本意是“过分频繁,超过一次、多于一次、又一次”。)

Once and again, Jenny said, "The Internet is playing an important role in the national economy." 詹妮再三地说:“互联网在国民经济中起着重要的作用。”

二、副词 once 作“一度”、“曾经”讲

I once thought that the answer to this question was correct. 我一度认为这个问题的答案是正确的。

He remembered to have once carried out this research work。他记得曾一度进行过这种科研工作.(once 说明作宾语用的不定式完成时。)

We visited the once capital of that country. 我们访问了那个国家的旧都。(这里 once 转为形容词,但仍含有“一度的”意思.)

三、连词 once 作“一旦”、“一经”讲,连接时间或条件从句,但有时连接一个省略句,省略与主语相同的主语或 it 及谓语 be 的相应形式

Once you begin, you must continue. 一经开始,你就必须继续下去。

Once(或 When once)it is gone, perhaps you will never get it back. 一旦失去什么,你也许永远找不回来。

Once put into operation, computers will play an important role. 计算机一运行,就将起重要作用。

四、“once + 过去分词”作后置定语时,可理解为“if once…”,具有条件从句含义

Such fish once taken out of the water will soon die. 如果一旦将这样的鱼从水中取出,它就马上死去。(=If once such fish is taken out of the water,it will soon die.)

The circuit once closed will soon put on the light. 电路一闭合就立即亮灯。(= If once the circuit is closed, it will…)

五、和 once 连用的其它常见短语

They were determined to end the matter once and forever [或 once (and) for all]. 他们决心一劳永逸地(或终于)结束这件事。

Once upon a time, there was an honest young man named Sidney. 从前有个诚实的青年,名叫锡德尼。

a. I must tell you the latest news at once. 我必须马上告诉你最新消息。

b. His talk was at once interesting and instructive. 他的讲话既有趣又有教育意义。

a. All at once he lost his temper. 他突然发脾气。

b. The soldiers turned round and ran away all at once. 士兵们向后转并且一起跑步离开。

One 和 Ones 的用法

一、one 作数字“一”讲,并有引申用法(见第二、三例)

One plus (或 and) one is two. 1 加 1 等于 2。

Babies begin to talk at one。婴儿一岁开始说话。

We all rose up as one at once. 我们立即全体起立.

You don't try to talk at one time. 你们不要同时抢着讲话。

二、one 泛指“一个人”,后接 of + 某类人或物,则为“…中之一(人或物)。在一定的上下文中还可表示同一个人或物

One should study and work for people. 人应该为人民而学习和工作。

Tianjin is one of the big cities in China. 天津是中国的大城市之一。

The child didn't know ice and steam are one. (那时)这小孩不知道冰和水蒸汽是一回事。

I thought Dr.White and Prof.White were one. 当时我还以为怀特博士和怀特教授是同一个人。

三、不定代词 one 作主语时,后面要用 he, his 或 one, one’s 作其相应的代词。注意 one 或 ones 可分别代替前面出现的可数名词单数或复数,也可能分别代替前面复数名词的单数或前面单数名词的复数

The idea of "atom" has a long history, one extending back to about 600 B.C. 原子的概念有悠久的历史,可以追溯到公元前 600 年左右。(one 是 history 的同位语,也是为避免重复 history 而用的代词。后面 extending… 为后置定语。)

A:Those mobile phones don't look nice. 那些移动电话不好看。

B:Here is one which looks quite nice. 这里有一部很好看。(one 代替前面出现的复数名词中的单数。)

There were a number of well-known scientists in the last century, but Albert Einstein was one of the more interesting ones. 上世纪有许多著名科学家,但是埃·爱因斯坦是其中较为有影响的一个。

There are many advantages which have led to the increase of nuclear power plants. One is that they are less expensive to operate than conventional ones. 有许多优点导致核电厂数量增加。其中一个优点是核电厂的操作费不如普通发电厂贵。

Or, Or Else, Else 的用法

一、or 作“或者”讲,连接两个同等成分

Matter is anything like air, water or metals. 物质是像空气、水或金属之类的任何东西。

Computers themselves don't know when to add, or subtract, or compare, or request input. 计算机本身不知道何时加、减、比较或要求输入。

二、or 作“即”、“就是”讲,引出同位语,表示 or 后面和前面是同一成分、同一内容或同一人、物(参阅第 146 节三和八)

三、用 "either… or…" 或者 "either… or else…”来表示“不是……(否则)便是……”之意

Either you or I am about to go to Beijing. 不是你便是我要马上去北京。(注意用 am, 不用 are.)

I’ll come and have lunch with you either to day or tomorrow. 我将回来和你一起吃午饭:不是今天便是明天。

When a pure substance undergoes a chemical change, it either combines with other substances to produce a product of greater weight, or(else)it decomposes into two or more substances. 当一种纯物质经受化学变化时,它不是跟其它物质化合成重量较大的产物,(否则)便是分解为两种或更多种的物质。

四、or else, 单个 or 或单个 else 作“否则”讲

Be quick or else (= otherwise) you’ll be late. 快,否则就要迟到了。

Dress warmly or else (=if not) you’ll catch cold. 穿暖和些,否则(或不然话)你会感冒的。

Drink this; else you will fall ill. 喝了它,否则你会病倒的。

Do what as you are told, or else…. 按别人告诉你的做,否则…。(or else 后的词语省略,含威胁语气。)

五、"…or…" 作“不论…”讲,表示让步意义

Yes or no, you must answer this question. 不论是与否,你总得回答这个问题。

Fine or rainy (或 Rain or shine), we must go to the plant. 不论晴雨,我们一定去工厂。

六、和 or 连用的其它常见短语

例如:or rather 更确切地说,three kilometers or so 三公里左右,sooner or later 迟早,speak English more or lass 或多或少地讲英语,thirty kilometers more or less 30 公里左右 (=more or lass 30 kilometers), or vice versa 或者反过来(也是这样)等

七、副词 else 作“其他或其它”、“别的”讲,常用于疑问词、不定代词及不定副词的后面,翻译时一般加“(另外)还”、“另有”、“再有”等词

Who else will come here?(另外)还有谁将到这里来?

what else are you going to do? 你还准备做什么?

Where else did Prof. Lu go? 卢教授还去了什么地方?

Which else of you didn't hand in the homework? 你们中间还有哪一个没有交作业?

When else will James come and see me? 詹姆士还将在什么时候来看我?

Whose else could this pen be? 这支钢笔还能是谁的呢?

How else could I have conducted the research? 我那时还能怎样进行这项研究呢?

Maybe something else happened to her yesterday. 也许昨天她还发生了某件事。

He must have told this to someone (或 somebody) else. 他准是把这件事告诉了另外某个人。

It was a purely family matter, and concerned no one else. 这纯粹是家里的事,和任何外人无关。

Everyone (或 Everybody) else but you has attended the welcome meeting. 除了你以外,所有其他人都参加欢迎会了。

Nobody else but him could ever do such a thing. 除了他以外,就再没有人能够做这样的事。

I ought to put it before all else. 我应该把它放在所有其它东西前面。

He has not anything else (=nothing else) to say. 他再没有什么可说了。

There is nowhere else(=not anywhere else)for me to go. 我无其它地方可去。

I am going to take you somewhere else. 我打算带你去另外一个地方。

注:elsewhere 和 somewhere else 含义相同。例如:Those talk backs were found elsewhere (= some where else). 那些对讲机是在别处发现的。

Other 和 Another 用法差异

一、other(前加定冠词 the)用于两人或两事物中的“另一个”,而 another 用于不定数目中的另一个

Henry holds a pair of sunglasses in one hand, and his portable phone in the other. 亨利一手拿一副太阳镜,另一手拿移动电话(或手机)。

I have finished this book. Please give me another. 我已读完这本书。请再给我一本书读读。(注意:不能用 the other。只有当对方只有两本书时,才可用 the other。此外,也不能说:Please give me one book again. 汉语中的“再”不完全等于 again。)

To know is one thing; to teach is another. 自己知道是一件事,而教别人是另一回事。(只要作者或说话人在上文中未明确提出“要注意两件事”,就不要用 the other 代替 another)

No other university in China has so many students as our university (has). 在中国没有另外一个大学像我校那样有那么多的学生。

二、another (由 an + other 构成) 大多用于单数,而 other 用于单复数均可,视需要而定;others 是代词复数

One is a worker, another is a peasant, and a third is a soldier. 一个是工人,另一个是农民,还有一个是军人。

That is another question. 那是另外一个问题。

Joe is walking along the other side of the street. 乔正沿着街道另一侧步行。(街道只有两侧,故另一侧不能用 another side。)

I have other books besides these. 除了这些书以外,我还有其它一些书。

Some say yes, and others say no. 有些人说对,有些人说不对。

There were 30 students in our class. Twenty of them went to the net friend club, and the others (或 the other students) stayed here. (那时)我班有 30 个学生。其中 20 个去了网友俱乐部,而其余学生留在这里。

On the other hand, they have a game every other day. 另一方面,他们每隔一天有一次比赛。

The other day I saw them talk with each other. 前几天我看见他们相互交谈。

注:another 有时用于复数名词前,表示“另外再…”之意。如:The meat has to cool for another five minutes (或 five more minutes). 肉还得再煮五分钟。(言外之意,已煮了五分钟。)

三、other than 用法见下面的专题

Other than 的用法

一、other than 原意为“与……不同的”或“并非…”

Here is a IC card other than yours. 这里的 IC 卡(或集成电路卡)不是你的。(直译为:这里放着的是与你的 IC 卡不同的 IC 卡。)

We have done many undergraduate courses other than this one. 我们读了与这门课不同的许多大学课程。

Reactions other than the desired one often occur when the reactants are brought together. 当这些反应物放在一起时,常发生不希望有的一些反应。(原意为:…常发生与希望有的反应不同的反应。)

These animals are different in other ways than shape. 这些动物差别不在形状,而在别的方面。

二、other than 常常可译为“除了……以外”

I have not operated any computers other than the personal computer. 除了这台个人计算机以外,我没有操作过任何其它计算机。

Under some conditions chemical energy is liberated during a chemical reaction in forms other than heat. 在某些条件下,在化学反应期间,化学能还能以除了热能以外的其它形式释放出来。

The law takes into account forms of energy other than those discussed so far. 除了到目前为止所讨论的那些能量形式以外,该定律还考虑了其它能量形式。

He could not do it other than hurriedly. 他只能匆匆忙忙地做了那件事。

三、no… other than 作“除……外……不”讲

No fuels other than petroleum will be fit for this purpose. 除石油外其他燃料都将不适于这种用途。

We can think of no other example than this. 除了这个例子以外,我们想不出其它什么。

四、none (或 no) other than… 作“不是别的,正是…”讲

It is none other than a minicomputer. 这就是微型计算机。(意译)

The pretty girl that you saw yesterday was no (或 none) other than Jessica. 你昨天看见的那个女孩不是别人,正是杰西卡。

Ms. Liao is no other than our teacher. 廖女士正是我们的老师。

Otherwise 用法

一、连词 otherwise 作“否则”讲,与 or else 和 if not 同义

Heat the water, otherwise it will freeze. 把水加热,否则水会结冰。

A body must be moved, otherwise no work is done. 物体必须被移动,否则就没有作功。

He was busy with his experiment yesterday, otherwise he would have come to the meeting. 他昨天忙于作实验,否则他早就来开会了。(本句中 otherwise 实际上等于;if he had not been busy with his experiment yesterday, 所以构成了对过去事实相反的假设,后句谓语用虚拟语气。)

二、副词 otherwise 作“取别的方式”、“除此以外”、“从其它方面来说”讲

You think it will rain today, but he thinks otherwise. 你认为今天会下雨,但他看法不同。

That is the only blemish in an otherwise perfect portable phone. 那个手机除了有这个唯一缺陷外,可以说是很完美的。(意译)

A catalyst will enable a condition of equilibrium to be attained more quickly than otherwise would be possible. 催化剂可使平衡状态比不采用催化剂时更快地达到。(斜体处英文原意是“取别的方式”。)

Otherwise expressed, the current varies directly with the voltage. 换种形式表达,电流和电压成正比。(过去分词短语作状语。)

In the process of converting coal into gas underground a hole is dug down to the otherwise unusable coal seam and the coal is ignited. 在地下煤的气化过程中,先往下挖洞,一直挖到用其它方法都不能开采的煤层上。然后点燃煤层。

三、形容词 otherwise 作“别样的”、“其它性质的”讲

Some of the methods are successful, some are otherwise. 在这些方法中间有些是成功的,有些则不然。

Fine or otherwise, we shall have to carry out this test. 不管天气好不好,我们非做这个试验不可。(句首部分系Whether it is fine or otherwise 的省略形式。)

Ought 的用法

一、情态动词 ought 作“应该”讲,后接带 to 的不定式,语气比 should 强

You ought to answer this question at once. 你应该立即回答这个问题。

The fly test ought to be carried out. 这项试飞应该进行。

二、否定式 ought not 相当于 mustn't,作“不许可”讲。一般要用 should not 表示“不应该”。

It ought not to be allowed. 这是不许可做的。

She ought to go by air, shouldn't she? 她应该乘飞机去,可不是吗?(反意疑问句要求句末用 ought 的否定式 shouldn't。)

三、ough to 作“该”讲,用于表示可能性、期望。

It ought to if about ten o’clock. 现在该是十点钟左右。

You ought to look through binoculars. 你(应该)最好用望远镜观察。

四、ought 没有时态变化,得靠上下文去体会。一般用于现在时和将来时(包括过去将来时),但不能用于叙述过去,除非表示过去应该做而实际未做的事(参阅下面第五项)

We students ought to learn English hard。我们学生应该努力学习英语。

He thought (that) they ought to take part in the plant design. 那时他认为他们应该参加工厂设计。(起过去将来时作用)

There will be a welcome meeting tomorrow. All of us ought to take part in it. 明天有个欢迎会。我们大家都应参加。(起将来时作用)

五、“ought + to have + 过去分词”表示“本应…”之意

He ought to have repaired the digital computer yesterday. 他昨天本应修好这台数字计算机。(实际上未修)

This experiment ought to have been done last week. 这个实验本应在上星期做。(实际上未做)

He ought not to have done so even if possible。即使可能,当时他也不该这样做。(实际上他当时却这样做了。)

Out 及 Out of 的各自搭配用法的理解和判断

out 为副词,而 out of 为复合介词。现按下列十六个大类来体会它们在各种短语中的含义。

一、out 表示“在外面、外向、到外面、出去、离开”时的动词短语汇总

ask sb. out to do sth. 请某人到外面(做某事);

dine (或 eat) out 在外面吃饭,check (或 book) out 结账后离开;

come out 出来;

go out 出去;

get out 走开;

draw out(火车)离站;

lead… out 把(客人)领出去;

move out 出发,搬迁出去;

run out 跑出去;

set (或 start) out 动身去(天津)[后加 for Tianjin];

see sb. out 送某人到外边(或门口);

stand out 站出来,(他)很突出或出色;

stay out 呆在外面,不插手,(罢工者)继续罢工;

walk out 步行出去,退场;

want out 想出去等。

二、out 和有关动词搭配,作“…出”等讲时的动词短语汇总(共十类)

Ⅰ. out 与有关动词搭配表示“拟定出”、“制订出”、“设计出”、“提出”之意。

draw out… 草拟出(计划等);

chalk out 制订出(计划、要点等)[由“用粉笔勾画出…”引申过来];

get… out on time 准时拟出(一个计划等);

line out… 草拟(计划等)[由“划线勾画出…”引申过来。在一定上下文中还可作“用划线去掉(某词句等)”讲。但这两种意思却都是 line out… 的形象化表现] set out… 设计或规划(城市等)或栽种(秧苗等)[由 set out 本义“把…摆设出来”引申过来];

knock out… 匆忙地拟出(计划等)[由“敲打出…”引申过来];

lay out… 设计或安排(版面等)[还可延伸作“花费(钱)等];

study out… 通过研究制订出(新计划等),解开(奥秘等);

think out… 想出或规划出(方案、计划等);

work out… 制订出(计划等),解出或算出(某道题)等。

II. out 与有关动词搭配作“数出”、“算出”讲。

count out… 出声数出(书架上的书等)[注意在一定上下文中,如 count these two factors out 就作“不考虑这两个因素”讲。可把它理解为系由“将…考虑在外”或“将…计算在外”引申过来];

figure out… 计划出(时间、费用等),对于(形势、某人想法、如何做某工作等)心中有数,对于(某人、某事)明白、理解;

get out… 算出(某道题等)[get out 还有其它用法] work out… 算出(面积、价格、某道题等)[还可作“拟定(计划)”讲];

draw out money from the bank account 从存折申提出款等。

III. out 与有关动词连用,作“用完”、“租出”、“卖出”、“盘出”、“包出”讲。

run out(汽油、肥皂等)用完;

give out(某人力气)用完或耗尽;

hire oneself out as… 出去当(打字员、保姆等)[由“把自己作为…身份受雇”引申过来];

let out… by the hour 按小时出租(游船、自行车等)[若为 let out a secret 或 a cry, 则形象化地表示“泄漏秘密”或“发出叫声”];

rent out… 租出(房子、小汽车等);

sell out… 售出(房子、报纸等)等。

Ⅳ. out 与有关动词连用,作“解雇”、“解职”、“退职”、“赶走”讲。

Be fired (out)(某人)被免职,被解雇;

freeze sb. out 用冷淡态度或竞争方式逐走或排挤(某人);

go out(某人)辞职,退职,下台[由“走出去”引申而来];

go out of work(某人)失业;

kick sb. out 把(某人)踢出去或解雇[相当于 throw sb. out of work (或 a job) 解雇某人];

let sb. out 让某人出去[直意],解雇某人[转义];

put sb. out 把(某人)赶走或解雇;

read sb. out 宣布开除某人,宣布把某人除名等。

V. out 与有关动词搭配,具有“生产出”、“出版”等含义。

bring out… 生产(新型机器等),出版(书等),把(某人)带领出来,带出(一堆旧书本、木头等),显出(问题重要性等);

come out(报刊等)出版 get… out 出版(新书等),生产(车辆等)[还可表示“(费劲地)说出(一个词或道歉等”、“解决(问题)”、“猜出(谜语等)”、“把(缝纫机等)拿出来”等];

put out… 出版(小册子等),生产或发行(一百万盘录音带等);

roll out 大量生产出(新型仪器等)[指“滚滚而出…”];

rush out… 匆匆忙忙赶制出(某商品等);

turn out… 生产或出产(拖拉机等)[可理解为“从转动的装配线末端等传送出成品”。但 turn out the lights 为“熄灯”]等

Ⅵ. out 与有关动词连用,表示“长出…”、“(事故、疾病等)发生”、“(花等盛开)”、“打开(好酒等)”意思。

branch (vi., vt.) out(树等)长出新枝,(商行等)扩大(业务);

break (vi. , vt.) out(疹子等),长出来,(某事件)爆发,(某传染病)发生,卸下(零件、货物等),打开(一瓶好酒等);

bring out…(温暖的天气等)使(花等)开放;

come out(花等)盛开;

come out in a rash (或 inspots)(人或手)出疹子或斑点;

push out…(树等)长出(新枝等);

put out…(植物等)长出(新枝等)[put out 还有“把(某人或某物)推出去”[直意]、“熄灭(火等)”、“生产…”、“发表…”、“投资…”等含义];

send out…(树等)长出(叶子等)][send out… 还可作“发出(信号等)”、“散发(香味等)”、“派遣(某人)”讲]等。

Ⅶ. out 与有关动词搭配,表示“发出…”、“分发…”、“放出…”、“散发…”等含义。

give out… 放出或散发(热)[不如 give off heat 雅],分发(小册子等),发出(新闻等),放出(香味等),(树叶等)发出(沙沙声),发出(劝告等),公布(细节等);

hand out… 发(练习本等),分发(面包等);

pass out… 分发(课本等),分担(责难等)[注意 pass (vi.) out 却作“出去”、“离开”、“昏过去”、“去世”讲];

put out… 发出、发表或广播(警告、号召或政府声明等),出版(小册子等);

send out… 发出(信、信号等),放出(热、香味等),派遣(某人等);

serve out 分发或发送(食物、汤等)[注意 serve out one’s apprenticeship (或 one’s sentence) 作“(某人)学徒出师(或服刑期满)”讲,而应从“做到…期满”去理解,serve sb. out 则作“对某人报复”讲];

share out… among sb. 在某些人中间分配或分发(钱、糕点等);

throw out… 散发出(热等)[还作“迅速提出(问题等)”、“把(刷子等)扔出去”等讲]。

Ⅷ. out 与有关动词搭配,表示“说出…、大声喊叫…、突然哭、笑或厉声地说”等意思。[还可联系第 117 节 up 专题。

bark out… 突然大声喊叫(警告等);

break out like that(某人)那样大声叫嚷;

break out laughing(某人)爆发出大笑声;

break out in curses(某人)破口大骂;

burst (vi.) out 突然喊叫;

burst out + -ing 突然(笑或哭)起来;

burst out in laughter 突然笑起来;

burst out into a song 突然唱起歌来;

call out… 大声叫出(名字、名称等)[在一定上下文中作“把(某人)叫出来”或“请出(医生等)”讲];

cry out 大叫;

jump sb. out 严厉批评或痛骂某人[由“言辞厉害使某人跳起来”引申过来];

read out… 朗读(课文等),(计算机等)显示出(计算结果等),宣布把(某人)除名;

roar out (vi., vt.)(狮、虎)吼叫,(某人)大声发布(命令);

roll out… 大声和清晰地说出(台词等),朗诵(诗歌等);

say out… 说出(忠告等);

shout out… 大声喊叫出(某人名字等);

sing out… 大声高唱或大声宣读(当选者名字等);

snap out 厉声说话;

speak out 大声说话[= speak up],大胆坦率说话等

注:有时还用 speak up, talk up 等表示“大声讲话或说话”,可参阅第 117 节、二十。

Ⅸ. out 用于“提出(问题,建议等)”含义的短语动词举例。

come out with a suggestion 提出一个建议;

make out a case 提出一个理由;

plot out an idea 提出一个想法;

set out (或 up) an idea 提出一个想法;

throw (或 fling, toss) out a question 随即提一个问题等。

注:注意上下文。在议会里,使用 throw (或 fling, toss) out a bill 均作“拒绝接受或否决一个议案”讲。这时还可用 chuck out, haul out 或 turn domn… 来表示“拒绝接受(提议等)”。

X. out 还表示“…出”含义的其它短语动词举例。

dig out… 挖出(根、古币),挖掘或弄清楚(事实);

drag out… 拔(牙等),拖长(故事,讲话等);

drive out… 把(故人等)赶出去;

draw out… 掏出(钱包等),拔出(牙等),提取(存款等);

drop out(牙齿等)掉出来,(球队等)退出,(某人)掉队、落后或退学等[根据上下文选择词义。若单独使用,则用 drop out of school(退学)等形式表示];

empty out… 把(油等)倒空出去;

find out… 找出(答案等),发现(错误或不轨行为等);

force… out 逼走(某人),将(小公司)排挤出去;

freeze (v.) out 把(小企业等)淘汰出去,(植物)冻死;

get out… 出版(新书等),拔出(钉子等),泄漏(秘密等),勉强说出(一些话等),订出(某计划等),完成(书面材料),算出(这道题等),除去(污点、钉子等)[均由“使…出来”、“把…弄出来”引申过来];

hold out 伸出(双手等),递给或捧出(衣服等),提出(希望等);

measure out…(药剂师等)量出(中药剂量等),(按照规定等)分配出(报酬等);

nose out… 嗅出或闻出(老鼠),打听出或找出(事实);

make out… 凑出或凑足(某笔款子等)[注意 make out 还可表示:“琢磨出”、“辨认出”或“理解”、“写出”或“开出(支票、收据等)”、“(某人)把(自己)假装(成为一个医生等)”[后接不定式短语]、“(某人)假装(他在做作业)[后用 that 连接一个从句]”、“提出(一个观点、理由等)”。但这些都符合其形象和逻辑思维联想];

point out… 指出(优缺点、错误、美丽景色等);

pour out… 倒(酒),倾吐或倾诉(感情、困难、不幸遭遇);

pull out… 拔出(牙、钉子、手枪等);

push out… 把(某人、某物)推出去,(树)长出(嫩叶);

put out… 伸出(舌头等),把(某人)撵出去,出资(500 万元),使出(精力、热情),作出(努力)[注意 put out… 在不同上下文中还可作“熄灭”、“生产”、“出版”、“发表”、“广播”等讲,但 out 的几个本义始终不变。];

searck out… 搜查出或找出(失败原因、重要事实、凶手等);

seek out… 把(小孩等)找了来,找出(困难、油渍等);

ship out… 用船运(货物等);

sort out… 按类挑出或拣出(苹果等),整理(卡片、邮票等),整顿(干部等),解决(冤案等),惩罚(小偷等);

spell out 拼写出(某词等);

stretch out 伸出(手);

vomit out… 呕吐出(血、酸液等),(烟囱)冒出(浓烟等);

weigh out… 把(各种中药)秤量出来;

worry out… 费尽心计找出(有效方法或某题答 案);

write out…写出或腾写(契约),开出(支票、药方)等。

三、out 用于“扫掉、擦掉、清理掉、洗去等”含义的短语动词举例

cancel (v.) out 抵销掉(债务等),(成绩或过错)相抵销;

clear out… 打扫(抽屉、房间等);

clean out… 清理掉(垃圾等),清理(房间、抽屉等)[但 clear (vi.) out 表示“(某人)走掉或离开”之意];

rub (v.) out easily(某些标记等)易于擦去;

rub out… 擦掉(污泥等),毁掉(工厂等);

score out… 把(锅等)擦刮干净,划掉(某词句等);

take out… 擦掉或洗去(痕迹),拔掉(牙等),搞掉(碉堡等);

wash out… 洗掉(斑点、污泥等);

wipe out… 擦掉(油渍、黑板上的字等),把(澡盆等)擦洗干净,抹掉或勾销(债务)等。

四、out 用于“删掉、划掉、略去”时的动词短语汇总

black out… 涂黑去掉即抹掉(某些词句等);

blank out 删掉(某一句等)[由“…变为空白”引申过来];

cancel out 取消或删去(某字句等);

cross out (或 off)… 删掉(某词句等)[由“对某词句打‘×’来表示删掉”];

cut out (或 off)… 砍掉(某些短语等)[有时也可用 cutdown 表示];

leave… out 删去(某些词语等)[系由“将(某词)语留在外面”引申过来];

line out… 划掉(某词等)[但 line out a plan 则为“草拟一个计划”,而 line… through 是“中间划线以删掉(某词等)”];

rule out… 划掉或删去(某句等)[系由“用尺划线删去…”引申过来][同上,也可用 rule… through 表示];

strike out (或 off, through… 把(项目、某句话)删去;

stroke out… 划线勾销或删去(某词等);

miss out… 遗漏或漏看(某一行字等),略过(某题目)等。

五、out 和有关动词搭配,表示“打开、散开、摊开、伸直、展开、解决”等

break out… 打开(一瓶饮料等);

open out… 摊开(报纸等)或展开(地图等);

spread out… 摊开(一块布),伸开(手,手指等);

spread out(美丽景色等)展现出来;

roll out… 摊开(面团等),大量生产(水泵等);

smooth out… 铺开(床单等),解决(技术问题等);

stretch out… 把(床单等)铺开,伸直(手、脚等);

stretch out(某人)身子摊开平躺等。

六、out 用于“扑灭、熄灭、踏灭”等时的动词短语汇总

be out(火等)熄灭[联系 lights-out(熄灯)等];

beat out… 用扑打方式熄灭(火灾等);

be blacked out(舞台灯光等)熄灭,(某地区在战时或由于停电)灯火熄灭;

blow out… 把(蜡烛、火焰等)吹灭,把(保险丝等)烧断,使(车胎等)放炮;

burn out(蜡烛等)燃尽而熄灭,(怒气、热情等)消失;

be burned out(房屋等)被烧毁,(引擎等)被烧坏[指烧完熄火后的结果];

crush out… 掐灭(香烟),扑灭(动乱),挤出(果汁);

go out(火灾等)熄灭;

put out… 扑灭(火灾、蜡烛等);

stamp out… 跺灭(火等);

turn out… 关或熄(灯等)[相当于 turn off (或 switch off) the lights, 由“旋转或拨动开关使电路断开 (off 本义)”引申过来]等。

七、out 用于“疲倦、失去知觉、昏倒”时的动词短语汇总

be beaten out(某人)筋疲力尽;

black (vi.) out(某人在高空时)失去知觉或昏倒[由“眼前漆黑一片”引申过来];

burn oneself out(某人)使自己筋疲力尽;

give (vi.) out(人或腿等)疲乏,(体力等)用完、不支;

knock oneself (或 sb.) out(他或超时工作等)把自己(或某人)累跨,(战士们)击溃(敌人);

be played out(某人)筋疲力尽,(某理论等)过时,(才能等)用尽;

be talked out(某人)谈累了,(问题等)被彻底讨论;

be tired out(他)疲倦到极点;

be washed out(他)疲倦极了[由“失去活力”、“被耗尽精力”引申过来];

be worked out(她)疲惫不堪;

run oneself out(他)跑得筋疲力尽等。

八、out 表示“清楚”等含义时的动词短语汇总

argue out… 辩清楚(问题及其性质等);

beat out… 弄明白、推敲出或阐明(某词义等);

check out… 核查清楚(帐单等),检查(飞机等);

figure out… 搞清、理解或懂得(某种操作方法等);

make out… 弄清楚、琢磨出或理解(某句子的意思等);

reason out… 分析清楚(某问题等);

sound sb. out about (或 on)… 探听清或摸清某人有关…方面的口气、看法等[这里 sound 作“试探、探询”讲]等。

九、out 表示“完全、彻底、结束或终止”时的动词短语汇总

blow out(暴风雨等)吹完或停吹[通过本例翻译可体会到上面所写的“结束、完成”和“终止”都包含的基本含义];

bomb out… 炸毁(工厂、住房)炸得(五千人)无家可归;

burn out… 烧完(煤等),使(某人)筋疲力尽;

cut out drinking (或 smoking 等) 戒掉(酒和烟等);

dry out… 使(油漆等)完全弄干,戒(酒等);

go out 或 gutter out(天、月、年、假期等)结束;

hear sb. out 听某人把话讲完;

root out… 根除或铲除(战争起因等);

run out(油、食品等)用完或耗尽;

see… out 看完(球赛),送(某人)出来,辞别(旧岁),待完(这周等),活到(下月)末尾,把(任务、任期等)进行完毕;

talk out sth. 彻底讨论(问题),通过交谈消除(分歧),(某人)倾吐(他伤心事即 his grief);

be tested out(某理论或产品等)受到彻底或充分检验;

be worked out(某矿等)开采完,(某人)工作疲劳;

write oneself out(某作家)写作能力枯竭或无力写出作品[由“把自己写作能力使尽”引申过来,本短语还可用被动态表示]等。

注:从广义讲,最后两例也可归入前面第七项。

十、out 用于“注意、当心”等时的动词短语汇总

listen out 留心听;

listen out for… 留心听好(注意事项等);

look (v.) out 当心,注意查出或找出(一本好书或一些外国邮票等);

look out for… 当心或提防(蛇、狗等),留心找(某人或某些拼写错误等);

mind out 小心,注意[后面常接“汽车正开过来”、“路面很滑”等句子];

search out the book he needs 查找他需要的书;

watch out that you don't catch cold 当心你别感冒;

watch out for… 警惕或提防(某人、汽车、蛇等),监视(敌机等),注意寻找(邮递员、某人的汽车、机会等)。

十一、out of 常作“从…内出来”或“离开”讲。若常用 out 的固定短语后接 of…,则就指出具体的出处或来由。这时 out of 必须紧接在一起

a. come out 出来

b. come out of the talk(某结果等)从谈话中引出

c. come out of trouble(某人)摆脱困境

a. fire sb. out 把某人解雇

b. fire sb. out of the office 把某人逐出办公室或使人免职

a. get out 出来,跑出来

b. get out of the car 从汽车里出来

c. get out of the prison 出狱

a. get (或 wash) the ink stain out 去掉或洗掉墨水迹

b. get the ink stain out of the shirt 去掉或洗掉衬衫上的墨水迹

a. play out(小孩等)在外面玩耍

b. play out of doors(小孩等)在户外玩耍

十二、out of 表示“失去、丧失”之意时的动词短语汇总

be out of one’s sense (或 temper, patience等)(某人)失去理智(即发疯),(某人)生气或(某人)失去忍耐;

go out of one’s mind(某人)神经错乱;

be out of touch with sb. 和某人失去联系,和某人没有接触;

be out of employment = be out of work = be out of a job(某人)失业;

be out of order(机器等)出故障[指“失去工作状态”]等。

十三、out of 用于“由…制成、建成、做成(或雕刻成)、由(工资或基金等)支付(或出版)…”时的动词短语汇总

be made out of…(面粉等)由(小麦)制成,(某工艺品等)由(玻璃、象牙)做成;

be built out of…(房屋)由(水泥、砖、木材等)建成;

cut (或 carve)… out of stone 用石头雕刻(塑像等);

publish a book (或 pay the expenses) out of… 由(基金等)出版书等,由(工资等)支付这些费用等

注 1:在本类用法中有时 out of 中的 out 可以省略,如 be made (out) of 和 be built (out) of 等。

注 2:be made out of… 常用于成品和原料仍是同一种材料,中间无化学变化。

例如“由木料制成桌椅”等。若要表示“啤酒由米和麦子制成”,就用 Beer is made from rice and wheat. from 不可用 out of 代替。

十四、注意在非正式文体中用 out 表示 out of,从而造成难点

look out of the window… 从窗内看(花园);

duck out (of) one’s responsibilty 逃避责任;

go out (of) the door 走出门去;

jump out (of) the window 从窗口跳出;

throw sth. out (of) a window onto… 把(包裹等)从窗口扔到(站台等)上等

十五、out of… 用于表示“多少…中间有某数量的…”之意

In two years out of five there are floods. 五年就有两年闹水灾。

Out of all the students present, only a few have been to Shanghai. 在所有出席的学生中间只有几个人去过上海。

十六、注意 out of 和 in (或 into) 构成反义词组对比

a. be out of use(机器等)不使用了

b. be in use(某机器)在使用中

a. be out of order (或 trouble)(车)出故障,(人)摆脱困境

b. be in order (或 trouble)(车)处于正常状态,(人)处于困境

a. break (或 burst) out of the room 闯出房间

b. break (或 burst) into the room 闯入房间

a. go out of service 不营业,不工作,不运行

b. go into service 营业,工作,运行

a. talk (或 argue) sb. out of + -ing 说服某人不做某事

b. talk (或 argue) sb. into + -ing 说服某人做某事。

Over 及其搭配用法分类理解和判断

一、介词 Over 用于“在…上方、在…以上或…的另一边”时的动词短语举例

be right over…(阅览室)正好位于(我们教室)上方;

be equal to three over ten 等于 3/10(即 0.3);

(主语为某人的 blood pressure)is ninety over sixty.(某人的血压)为高压 90,低压 60;

be over sb. in the new job 在新的工作中(你)是某人的上司[指“地位在某人之上”而言];

have it over sb. (你们)比某人强;

have an advantage over… = have the edge over…(这种方法)比(其它方法)具有优越性(或具有优势)[可转译为“…比(其它方法)优越”];

have control over… 能控制(某公司、马等);

have (或 gain) a hold over… 控制或掌握(某人)[常用于贬义,可从 hold 本义“掌握”中看出];

lean over… and look ahead 伏在(栏杆)上并往前看(即凭栏远眺);

shine over…(太阳)照耀(地球)[直译为:太阳在地球上方照耀];

increase twenty percent over 1991(1992 年产量)超出 1991 年百分之二十;

be located over…(公司等)位于(公路)另一边[这里动词为非运动动词,于是 over… 由“越过公路”引申为“在公路的另一边”]等

二、介词 over 用于“覆盖、遍布、遍及”时的动词短语举例

be all over…(水或书)洒遍或撒满(地、桌);

go over…(茶、牛奶)洒在(整个桌布)上[注意 go over 还可表示“检查(线路)等”];

spread… over… 把(玩具)乱撒在(房间)内,(雾)笼罩(全城),(传染病)蔓延(全区等);

spray out over…(水或农药等)喷出来洒满(院子);

plant… over large areas 大面积种植(树);

travel all over China 游遍中国等

三、介词 over 由“覆盖地理区域”转意为“覆盖某段时间→在…期间”讲时的动词短语举例

go downtown over the weekend 进市里中心区度周末;

know sb. well over the years 这些年来对某人很熟悉;

run over night…(计算机)通宵运行;

talk about sth. over a bottle(或 a cup of tea)在喝酒(或喝茶)时谈论某事[由“在…上方”引申转译]”等

附:介 over 和 during 在时间方面用法比较

over 作“在…期间”讲,后面一般用有时间意义的名词及其短语,如 Sunday, his birthday, the past ten years 等,而不用无定冠词的 ten years 或 his visit, their stay, the discussion 等。由此可见,during 搭配范围比 over 广泛。

四、介词 over 用于“从…上面通过或超过”(可引申为“略过、漏掉、掩饰”)或“通过媒介(如无线电)”时的动词短语举例

jump over… 跳过(小溪等),跳过或略去(某些细节等);

fly over… 飞越(高山、大海等);

take sb. over… 带领某人过(马路等);

speak over television 通过电视发表讲话;

hear… over the air 通过广播听到(新政策等);

broadcast… over the radio 通过电台广播(新闻等);

never come over sb. 骗不了或愚弄不了某人[一种形象化的表示,常用于否定句中];

come from over the sea 来自海外[这里 over the sea 作 from 的介词宾语];

get over… 越过(某距离、墙、马路、河、高山等);

get over the hours (或 the days) 消磨或度过这几个小时(或这几天等),never get over sb. in… 在(某些事)中永远骗不了(某人)[一种形象化的表示,常用于否定句中];

never get over…(某人)永不理解、相信、原谅(他朋友的粗鲁态度等)[常用于否定句中];

look over sb’s carelessness 宽容某人的粗心大意,[系由“看时越过(即放过)某人的粗心大意”引申过来];

look over the wall(身材特高的人)能从墙的上方观看;

My window looks over… 从我的窗户能眺望(花园等)[含“观看遍及整个花园”之意];

run over… 撞倒(小孩等)[直译为:(司机、汽车等)从(小孩等)身上轧过 去],粗略地看(文件等)、读(文章等)或检查(材料等)、较快地复习(功课等);

see over… 参观并查看(工厂等);

pass over… 飞越(山顶),故意略过或忽略(某段文字等),丟弃(某机会等),(课后)回顾(老师教的内容等)[这里英语都是 pass over…,但译文差别很大。若从原文本意去思维,就不会记错]等

五、介词 over 由“越过、超过…”用于转义“克服或胜过…”时的动词短语举例

go over… 克服(困难、障碍等),摆脱(失望、苦恼、悲痛等),治好(疾病等)[由“摆脱疾病”引申过来];

prevail over(或 against)…(正义、人民等)压倒或战胜(邪恶、敌人等);

tide over… 克服(困难等),度过(困难时期等)[由“潮水般地越过…”引申过来];

walk over… 轻易地取胜(某球队等),轻蔑地对待(某人)[由“步行越过(马路、人群等)”引申过来]等

六、介词 over 用于“为了或由于…、对于…、在(某问题上)”时的动词短语举例

carry out much discussion over… 对(某课题等)进行许多讨论;

cry over… 为(某事)哭叫;

make a great fuss over… 为(小事等)大惊小怪;

have an influence (或 effect) over (或 on, upon)… 对(某人或某事)有影响;

have much difficulty over (或 with)… 对于(数学或钱的问题等)有不少困难;

talk over 谈论有关(生产问题等);

watch over… 照管(乘客及其安全),看守(羊群等);

worry over… 为(某人、某事)费心或不安等

注意有些表示心态的形容词、分词、名词等与本项 over 词义搭配的用法。

例如:be eager over… 对(某项目等)很热心;

be excited over… 为(这次旅游等)感到兴奋;

be grieved over… 对(某人逝世等)感到悲痛;

be busy over… 忙于(科研工作等);

be optimistic over… 对于(某计划等)很乐观;

express satisfaction over… 对(某事)表示满意等。

七、介词 over 作“在…以上”讲,从而引申出相应的副词 over 表示“越出、在上方、从上方、过分、剩下”之意

have what is needed and a bit over(某人)拥有所需的东西并且还超过一点;

lean over 稍放低(脑袋)或弯下(身子)(由“倚在…上方”引申过来,只是未提倚在何物上方而已);

have two apples (或 five dollars) over 剩下两个苹果(或 5 美元等);

look over(人在高处)能从上面观看;

there be sth. over 有(菜、饭等)剩下;

weigh ten kilos and a little over 某物重 10 公斤多一点;

weigh ten kilos and over(这些东西等)重 10 公斤和 10 公斤以上等

八、副词 over 作“过来、过去”,甚至引申为“结束”讲时的动词短语举例

ask sb. over + to do sth. 请某人过去(或过来)做某事;

be over(夏天)过去了,(战争、讲话、早饭、会议、这节课等)结束;

blow over(风暴等)过去或结束,(一个反对意见)过去或消失;

boil over(水等)煮沸溢出,(形势等)发展过头,(某人)大发雷霆[由“心中开锅、发泄怒气”引申过来];

bring… over 带(女朋友、小孩等)过来;

bring… over to… 带(某人)过来到(我家),使(某人)转过来到(我们)一边,或使(某人)转过来同意(我们的观点、想法等)[这里 over 已具有“回转过来”含义];

buy sb. over 收买某人[本义为“花钱把某人收买过来”];

can… over 叫(某人)过来,(老师)点名[由“把全班所有学生姓名从头到尾叫过来”引申过来];

come over(某人)走过来,(飞机等)在上空飞过来;

come over to… 走过来到(我们学校等),(某人)过来到(我们)一边[表示某人赞同或支持我们的意见、观点等];

come over well(演说、讲座等)收到效果好或被人很好地理解[系由“…能很好地传达过去”引申过来];

come over + 形容词[作表语](天气、天空等)逐渐变(暖、冷等),(形势等)逐渐变(好、坏等);

cross over(船等)渡过去,(人等)横越或穿过去;

deliver over… to sb. 把(钥匙、财产等)移交或送交给某人[这里副词 over 表示其间有一段距离或一段过程,汉语用“移”和“送”正是恰到好处];

get… over 使(考试、某任务等)结束,把(小孩等)送过去、摆渡过去、越过去等;

get over + to do sth. 过来做某事(如看我们等);

give over… to sb. 把(任务、款等)移交或交给某人;

go over well(演讲、戏剧等)效果反应良好;

hand over… to sb. 把(工作、权力、武器、小偷等)移交或交给某人;

pass over(飞机等)在头顶上方越过;

pass… over 故意忽略、不考虑或不提(这些细节等)[直译为:放过(这些细节等)];

pull the car over(司机等)把车开往一边;

take… over 接替(某人职务等),接管(铁路、某公司、某项工作等)[由“承接过来”引申过来];

take… over as… 把(某楼等)当作(办公楼等)[由“把…拿过来当作…”引申过来];

take sb. over 说服(某人)[由“把某人劝说过来”引申过来];

throw… over把(球等)扔过去[如中间有篱笆等],放弃(家庭、好友等),背弃(人民等);

turn… over to sb. 把(钥匙、钱、财产等)转移给某人,把(小偷等)扭送到(警察局即 the police)等

九、副词 over 由上述“通过一段距离”引申为“通过一段时间的距离”,有时作“耽搁一段时间”讲。它还可和有关动词以及 to 或 till 连用,就含“推迟、延期”之意

go over to…(某问题等)延迟到(下届代表大会等);

hang over till…(某提案的讨论等)被搁置到(下月等);

hold… over till… 将(这个课题等)挪到(下周工作会议);

lay (vi.) over some where about here(某人)在这里附近某地耽搁一段时间或过夜[若为“三天”则后常用 for three days 表示];

be laid over(音乐会等由于某种缘故)被耽误一段时间;

lie over till…(某工作等)推迟到(明天);

put… over till… 将(会议)挪到(下星期五);

spread… over till… 把(提案等)推迟到(下次会议);

spread (v.) over into the following year(使)该工作拖延到下一年等

十、副词 over 由“越过”引申为“从头到尾过一遍、仔细重复一遍、重新”时与动词构成的短语举例

check… over 把(书稿等)校阅一遍;

do… over 重新收拾或重新装饰(房间等),重念(这句话),重做(作业等);

live a simple life over again 再次过简朴的生活[over again 作“再次”讲];

look over… 审阅或翻阅(建议书等),查看(房子等),打量(某人);

make… over 修改(衣服等),改造或翻修(房间等)[这里短语由“重来一遍”引申到“再制作即相当于 remake”、“改造”、“翻新”等];

make… over into… 把(教室等)改为(阅览室);

think… over 仔细考虑(问题、答案)等

十一、副词 over 作“覆盖、遍及”讲时的动词短语举例

ache all over(他)全身疼痛,look all over for… 到处寻找(手表);

cover… over 把(棉花、粮)覆盖好;

freeze over(江河等)封冻等

十二、副词 over 用于“翻倒、翻转、转过来变为…”时的动词短语举例

change over from… to…(铁路线等)由(蒸汽机车)改为(电气机车等);

come over to… 走过来或转过来到(我们)一边,转过来同意(我们的建议等);

fall over(某人)跌倒,(某物)翻倒;

knock… over 打翻(瓶子、杯子),克服或解决(困难等)[转义];

push… over 推倒(某人或桌、椅等);

switch over to…(他)转而倒向(某党等),改用(公制),改学(英语),改听(别的节目等);

roll over(汽车等)滚翻;

turn over(汽车、船等)翻倒,(某人)翻动身体;

turn over… 打翻(灯、瓶子等),翻转(两页等),翻转(病人身体等),翻阅(半个图书馆),(耕种前)翻(地),起动(发动机等),(工资)达到(每周 600 元);

turn over to…(某公司)转为(生产个人计算机即 PC. )[ to 后接名词或动名词短语]等

十三、over 与其它副词或介词连用的情况

be over and above…(他的工资等)多于或超过(平均工资等);

get 50 dollars over and above… 除了(工资、奖金等)还拿 50 美元[over and above 相当于 besides];

be all over(某事或比赛等)全部完成或结束;

be all over with sb. [主语为 It](某人或病人等)完全完了[指死去];

be over and done with(误解、争论等)过去了或不再想了;

be over with…(到上午 12 点某人)结束(会议、讲座等);

live over against 住在(学校等)对面;

over and out 通话完毕[无线电通话用语];

read… over and over (again)再三地阅读(某故事等);

sit over here 坐在这边;

stand over there 站在那边等

十四、over 和 above 的用法比较,参阅第 4 节

代词有时出现在所代的名词之前

代词一般出现在所代替的名词之后,即名词先出现,然后才用代词代替它。但在英语中,有时也允许代词先出现,然后才出现它所代替的名词。例如:

Although we cannot see it, there is air all around us. 虽然我们看不见空气,但在我们四周围都有空气。

Without the friction between their feet and the ground, people would not be in a position (或 condition) to walk. 没有人的脚和地之间的摩擦,人就不能走路。

In spite of their small size, these cameras take very good pictures. 尽管这些照相机尺寸小,但仍能拍出好的相片。

When I accidentally stepped on its tail, the little dog cried out in pain. 当我偶然踩上小狗的尾巴,小狗便疼得大声吠叫。

The teacher doesn't like it when the students are late. 学生迟到时,老师就对此不高兴。(it 在句中代替“学生迟到”这个情况。)

通过上面五个例句,可以归纳如下两点:

A:见到代词,首先是往前找它所代表的名词。但对于上述五句中的 it, their, its 说来,往前找,不可能有它们所代替的名词,这时就得考虑往后找它们所代替的名词或某种情况。不管怎样,代词和所代的名词在数上要一致,并且要使句意合乎逻辑. 代词有时出现在所代的名词之前,多见于放在句首的从句或短语中。

B:翻译成汉语时,一般要先译代词所代替的名词,然后再译代词。但汉语代词用得比英语少得多,故在译文中往往可以不译成代词形式,而直接重复代词所代替的名词。

形容词型物主代词和名词型物主代词的用法辨异

一、形容词型和名词型物主代词的形式

形容词型物主代词:my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their.

名词型物主代词:mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.

二、形容词型物主代词只能作定语

This is my (或 your, his, her) book. 这是我的(或你的,他的,她的)书。

All matter has its weight. 一切物质都有其重量。

Will you visit our (或 their) computer company? 你将访问我们的(或他们的)计算机公司吗?

三、名词型物主代词等于“形容词型物主代词 + 上下文中出现的有关的名词”,始终在句中顶一个名词来用。不可用上述物主代词代替

Which electronic dictionary is yours? 哪个电子词典是你的(词典)?(表语不可用 your 替换。)

These exercise-books are ours, and theirs are over there. 这些练习本是我们的(练习本),而他们的(练习本)在那边。(句中 ours 为表语;theirs 作主语。不可用 our, their 代替。)

My room is on the second floor and his (is) on the third(floor). 我的房间在三楼,而他的(房间)在四楼。(句中 his 为名词型物主代词,作主语。)

You may use his bike, he may use mine, and I will use hers. 你可以使用他的自行车,他可以使用我的车,而我就骑她的车。(句中 mine 和 hers 均作宾语,不可用 my 和 her 代替。)

She is a close friend of mine. 她是我的一位知己朋友。(mine 作介词 of 的宾语,也不可用 my 代之。但可用“…of my own”代替。)

四、注意形容词型物主代词和 own 连用情况

She bought it for her own use. 她购买了这个东西供自用。(注意 own 作形容词用时,前面必须用相应的形容词型物主代词。)

This is their own house. 这是他们自己的房子。(=This house is their own. = This house is theirs. )

He has views of his own. 他有他自己的见解。

This word has a distinct meaning of its own. 该词有其独特的含义。

Provided (that) 和 Providing (that) 的用法和判别

一、连词 provided (that) 和 providing (that) 作“只要”讲,引导条件从句

I will set the machine to pieces once again provided (或 providing) that I have enough time. 只要我时间够,我就一定再把机器拆一次。(句中 that 可省略)

Motors will run well provided (或 providing) they are greased in time. 只要及时给马达上润滑油,马达就会运转得好。

We’ll go to Paris for (或 on) our holiday provided (或 providing) it isn't too expensive. 只要花费不太贵,我们将去巴黎度假。

二、由于 that 常省略,注意别与动词 provide(供给)的过去时、过去分词和现在分词混淆。判别时主要根据 provided 或 providing 后面是否有一个从句。若连接的是从句,provided 或 providing 作“只要”讲,否则就作“供给”讲

a. We shall do this test provided (或 providing) the weather is fine. 只要天气好,我们就做这个试验。(provided 或 providing 后面有从句,故作连词用。)

b. We are well provided with food and clothing. 我们衣食供应充足。(provided 后面不是从句,根据前面有 are,也可判别出它是过去分词。)

The volume of a gas will be proportional to its absolute temperature provided (或 providing) its pressure remains constant. 只要气压恒定,气体的体积与绝对温度成正比。(同上1.a.)

三、用 provided 或 providing 引出的条件状语从句常可用 if 代替。由于 provided 或 providing 含有以某种特定的“规定”作为条件,而且还是提出条件的人要求或坚持实现这个条件,所以并不是所有用 if 连接的条件状语从句都可用 provided 或 providing 代替。

We shall hold the farewell meeting here provided (或 providing) that no objection is raised. 只要没有反对意见,我们就在这里开欢送会。(句中 that 还可省略。也可用 if 代替句中 provided 或 providing that。)

If we succeed, what will the world say? 如果我们成功,世人将会说什么呢?(句中“我们成功”不是世人规定的某种条件,而是对将来的设想,所以不宜用 provided 或 providing 代替。)

Rather 和 Fairly 的用法差异(联系近义词 Quite, Pretty)

一、副词 rather 和 fairly 都可作“相当地”讲。但含义不同

This is a rather (或 rather an) easy book. 这本书颇为浅易。(有过于浅易、也许不适当的意味。)

This is a fairly easy book. 这是一本相当浅易的书。(有“因而,也许,适当”的意思。)

We want a fairly large car. 我们要一辆相当大的汽车。(言下之意,不是小的,但也不是很大的,而是适度的大车。)

This car is rather larger than we want. 这辆车比我们所需要的大了一点。(有不合适的意味。)

That is a rather surprising result. (=That is rather a surprising result.) 那是一个相当惊人的结果。

I know the rather tall student in your class. 我认识你们班里那个个子相当高的学生。(注意 rather 不能位于定冠词之前。试与上述第 1 句比较。)

注:以第 3 句中的 a fairly large car(相当大的汽车)为例,其中 fairly 还可用 quite, rather, pretty, very 代替。但它们并不属于同样一个水平,而是按上面这五个词的顺序逐渐加大。

二、rather 可用于比较级或 too(作“过分或太…”讲)之前,但 fairly 无此用法。

I am rather better today. 我今天身体好得多了。

The dress design is rather too difficult for me. 服装设计对我说来太难了。

三、or rather 用作插入语,表示“更正确地说”、“更精确地说”之意

He arrived very early this morning, or rather, at four o’clock. 他今晨到达很早,更精确地说,清晨四点到达。

Some people think that electricity is a fuel, but it is not. Rather, it is an indirect source of energy. 有些人认为电是一种燃料,但这是不对的。确切地说,电是一种间接的能源。

四、“would (或 had) rather”作“宁愿”、“愿”解,后接动词,也可后接不用 that 连接的宾语从句。在后一种情况下,从句谓语用过去时表示虚拟语气

I would rather come earlier。我宁愿早点来。

I would (或 had) rather you took him to hospital tomorrow. 我倒希望你明天送他住院。(从句必须用虚拟气语以表示主观意愿。)

He would rather not depend on Mary until I am absolutely sure that she is trust worthy. 他宁可等到完全确信玛丽可靠,他才愿意依靠她。(否定句和后面 until 引出的从句连用,使句子译成肯定句。)

We had (或 would) rather the students didn't conduct another experiment. 我们宁愿让学生不做另外一个实验。

注 1:rather than 详细用法见下面专题叙述。

注 2:fairly 作“相当地”讲,一般用于“好”的意思,如 fairly safe 相当安全,

fairly well 相当好地,fairly soon 相当快地。一般不说※fairly bad 或※fairly dangerous,(加 以示后面英语是错的)而要用 rather bad(相当坏)和 rather dangerous(相当危险)代替。但这不等于说,rather 只能用于“坏”的意思。rather* 也可用于“好”的方面。

注 3:fairly 的同形同音词作“公平地”、“完全地”、“简直”、“美观地讲”。例如:

1)We treat him fairly. 我们公平对待他。

2)She was fairly beside herself with joy. 她简直欣喜若狂。

3)They decorated the room fairly. 他们把房间装饰得很漂亮。

Rather than 的用法和注意点

一、rather than 用于表示主观愿望的抉择,即“宁愿……而不……”、“不是(或不应该是)这样,而是(或而应该是)那样”

He insisted on staying rather than go.(当时)他坚持要留下来,而不愿意去。(不可用 going 代替 go。)

He went rather than stay at home. 他走了,不愿呆在家里。

He would (或 had) rather join you in this work than stay at home. 他宁愿和你们一起参加工作,而不愿留在家里。(不可用 stayed 代替 stay。)

A few of us would rather not take the exam. 我们中间有几个人宁愿不参加考试。

He prefers to do rather than talk (或 …do instead of talking)。他喜欢干,不喜欢说。(也可改写为:He prefers doing to talking. )

We’ll take less sugar rather than put you to the trouble of fetching more. 我们将少搁些白糖,免得麻烦你再去取些白糖来。

注:"would (或 had) rather… than…" 句型常可用 "would sooner… than…" 或 "would as soon… as…" 句型代替,句意相似。例如上面第 3 句即可。

二、rather than 反映客观上的差异,即表示“是……而不是……”、“与其说是……不如说是……”、“倒不如说”之意。注意 rather than 连接的两端应是同类的词或成分

It is rather good than bad. 这倒是好的,不算坏。(联系同义或近义的句子:

a. It is good, not bad.

b. It is not bad, but good.

c. It is more good than bad. )

Linda is a senior programmer rather than an engineer. 与其说琳达是位工程师,不如说她是一位高级程序员。

She spoke about this matter in grief rather than in anger. 她是很痛苦地,而不是生气地讲这件事的。

Most things are now mass-produced rather than hand-made. 大多数东西现在是大量生产而不是手工生产的。

Rather than accelerate the reaction this compound brought about the side reaction. 这个化合物没有使反应加速,而是引起了副反应。(注意 rather than 在句首,也可置于句末。)

Atomic science is being developed in China to benefit the people rather than (to) harm them. 中国发展原子科学是为了造福人民,而不是危害人民。(连接不定式)

They are engaged in designing an engine rather than (in) repairing the machine. 他们从事于发动机的设计工作,而不是修理那台机器。(连接介词短语)

You should help them rather than they should help you. 你们应当帮助他们,而不是他们应当帮助你们。(连接两个分句)

Some times some of our most important learning takes place outside of school rather than in school. 有时候我们某些重要的学习是在校外而不是校内进行的。

If you jog rather than walk for 30 minutes, you’ll cover more distance, and therefore burn more calories. 如果你慢跑而不是步行 30 分钟,那么你就会跑更长的距离,因而消耗更多卡的热量。

三、判别时注意点

Ⅰ. 在句中有 would, had 等词,表示一种主观意愿时,rather than 多半作“宁愿……而不……”讲。

I would (或 had) rather join you in research work than go on holiday to the seaside. 我宁愿和你们一起参加科研工作,而不愿去海滨度假。

She would rather I stayed in the classroom than I went to the library. 她宁愿让我留在教室里,而不愿让我去图书馆。

注:上述两句中的 "would rather… than…" 也可用 "would sooner… than…" 或 "would as soon…as…" 代替。

II. 注意 rather than 有时省去 than 及其后的词。例如:

I would much rather go with you. 我很愿意跟你去。(句中被比较的东西省略。必须根据上下文去理解被省略的是什么。)

I would rather you didn't do anything about it for the time being. 我倒希望你对这件事暂时不要采取行动。(注意句中 would rather 后无原形动词,并且不用 that 就引出一个宾语从句。从句谓语要用过去时表示虚拟语气。在本句型结构中,后面也不再用 than 引出不希望有的事。)

III. rather than 如出现在句首,则该句就作“不是……,而是……”。例如上述第二项第 5 句。

Right 用法

一、形容词 right 作“正确”、“对”、“恰当”讲

That’s (= That is) right, I think. 我想,这是对的。

He is right in doing so. 他这样做是正确的。

A right kind of fuel is needed for an atomic reactor. 原子反应堆需要一种适宜的燃料。

We must do the right thing at the right time. 我们必须在适当时机做适当的事情。

二、形容词 right 作“直的”、“垂直的”讲

He regards AB as a right line. 他认为 AB 是一条直线。(句中 as a right line 是宾语补语。)

This law is true of (或 for) any right triangles. 这个定律适用于任何直角三角形。

三、形容词 right 作“右的”、“正面的”讲

In the right shop there are all sizes of gloves. 右边的商店内有各种尺码的手套。

Let us take a right turn. 让我们向右拐弯。

This is the right side of a piece of cloth. 这是一块布的正面。

四、副词 right 作“正确地”、“恰当地”、“恰好”、“完全地”讲

You have just done right. 你刚才做得不错。

She is driving a car right here. 她现在就在这里开车。

The wheel turned right round. 轮子转了一圈。

五、副词 right 作“在右面”、“向右”讲

Don't turn right!别向右拐弯!

六、名词 right 作“正确”、“权利”、“右”讲

If we study very hard, we shall be able to know the difference between right and wrong. 如果我们十分努力地学习,我们就能辨别是非。(原义为“……知道是非区别”。)

They have the right to say so. 他们有权利这样说。

Turning to the right you will find the snack bar. 往右拐,你就可找到快餐部。

The right to life rally was held here yesterday. 昨天在这里举行了维护生存权大会。(一种反对人工堕胎的大会)

七、带 right 的一些常用词组用法举例

My watch broke down, please set it right. 我的表坏了,请修理一下。(set… right 原意为“弄正”、“治好”。)

We are in the right. 我们有理。

He knows the rights of the case. 他知道这个案的真情。

She must be operated on (或 upon) right away. 她必须马上动手术。

We shall go right now. 我们立即前往。

All right, I will do it. 是了,我决意做这件事。

They work right along. 他们不停地工作。

’s 的用法

一、’s 一般表示人或动物等的所有关系,用于名词复数的词尾形式为 s’

the teachers’ help 老师们的帮助;children’s books 儿童读物;mare’s milk 马奶;China’s market 中国的市场等

二、表示店铺、教堂的名称或某人的家时,名词所有格后面的名词常不出现。

We met him at the tailor’s yesterday. 我们昨天在裁缝店遇见了他。

He visited St. Paul’s. 他访问了圣保罗教堂。

They are having a meeting at Mr. Fang’s. 他们正在方先生家开会。

三、注意名词所有格后的名词由于前面已经提到而被省略的情况,同时也注意 of 后单独使用名词所有格的情况

This book isn't mine, but Ms. Ye’s. 这本书不是我的,而是叶女士的。

That is a close friend of Professor Lin’s. 那是林教授的一位密友。

四、注意“名词所有格 + -ing ”构成复合结构的用法

The name of the picture is "Premier Zhou’s talking with an old worker”. 这张照片的名称是“周总理(在)和一个老工人谈话”。

I have not heard of Engineer Hua’s going abroad for higher studies. 我未听说华工程师出国深造。

五、’s 表示时间、空间、度量的关系

today’s newspapers 今天的报纸;an hour or tow’s delay 一、二小时的耽搁;the earth’s crust 地壳;the world’s people 世界人民;a boat’s length 一条船的长度;a ton’s weight 一吨的重量等

六、无生命的名词一般用 of 来表示所有格关系,但目前也有用 ’s 表示所有格的情况

This is our car’s engine. 这是我们汽车的发动机。

The moon’s gravity is much weaker than the earth’s. 月球引力比地球引力弱得多。

We should not neglect science’s role. 我们不应该忽视科学的作用。

We must control the city’s serious air pollution. 我们必须抑制城市的严重的空气污染。

注:目前在英语中用 of 短语仍比用 ’s 更多些。因此,使用本结构时应谨慎为宜。

七、’s 表示字母、数字、略语等的复数

ABC’s of science 科学的基础;1970’s 二十世纪七十年代;in the early 1900’s 在二十世纪初期;five B.T.U’s 5 个英热单位(也有用 five B.T.U. 而不加 ’s)

八、’s 是 us, has, is 的缩语

Let’s make an adjustment. 让我们调整一下。(指 us)

He’s stores (或a store) of books. 他有许多书。(指 has)

She’s been to Beijing. 她到过北京。(指 has)

It’s much better than we thought. 这比我们想的好得多了。(指 is)

九、注意易混淆的几个句子意思

This is Mr. Fang’s picture. 这是方先生的照片。

This is a picture of Mr. Fang. 这是方先生本人的照片。

This is a picture of Mr. Fang's. 这是方先生所持有的照片中的一张。

This picture is Mr. Fang’s. 这张照片是方先生的。

Should 用法

一、should 用于第一人称将来一般时助动词 shall 的过去将来时(见第 134 节、四)

二、should 用于非真实条件从句中(详见第 143 节、三[假设情况汇总表])

三、should 作“应该”讲

We should complete our test in time. 我们应按时完成试验。

In sum, theory should be combined with practice. 总而言之,理论应与实践结合。

四、should 用于表示建议、要求、决定、命令等意义的主从复合句内,这时从句谓语一般是“should + 动词原形”,并且其中 should 常可省略

They propose (或 demand, insist, decide, order) that you should read the rules carefully. 他们建议(或要求、坚持、决定、命令)(让)你们仔细阅读这些规则。

It is necessary (或 important) that the the results of an experiment should be checked. 核对实验结果是必需的(或重要的)。

They agree to the suggestion that our laboratory should be re-equipped. 他们同意让我们的实验室重新装备这个建议。

Our demand is that accurate measurement should be made. 我们的要求是测量要准确。

五、should 用于 if 或 in case 引出的从句内,表示从句的内容将来不大可能实现。这时主句要用 would, should, could 或 might 与动词原形来配合,详见第 144 节、三

If Sidney should come today, I would go to see the test tube twins together with him. 假如锡德尼果真今天前来,那么我就同他一起去看试管双胞胎婴孩。

I took a notebook computer in case I should have time to get on-line. 我带了一个笔记本电脑,以备有时间就可上网。

六、should 用于 "for fear that…(唯恐……)"、"(for fear). lest…(免得 ……)”和 "for fear (lest)…(恐怕……)”引导的目的状语从句中。其中 should 常可省略

Lest the wall (should) collapse, they went out of the house. 生怕墙倒坍,他们从房子里出来了。

He places the instrument carefully on the table (for fear) lest it should fall down. 他把仪器小心地放在桌上,以免仪器掉下来。

I must write down the names of the machines lest I (should) forget them. 我必须把这些机器名称写下来以免忘掉。

Take an umbrella with you for fear (lest) it (should) rain. 带上雨伞,恐怕要下雨。

注:本类型从句不限于用 should,还可根据词义需要可换用 would, might 或 may 等。例如:The parents worried for fear that their children would (或 might) hurt. 家长当时很担心,怕他们的孩子会(或可能)受到伤害。

七、should 用来表示谦逊、客气、委婉语气等含义,常用于第一人称

I should say it would be better to have a look at it again. 我倒是以为最好再看一下。

I should be sorry to disturb you. 如果打扰你的话,那就真对不起了。

I should think you are right. 我想你是对的。

I should like to visit this place again. 我倒是愿意再次访问此地。

八、“should + have + 过去分词”表示过去该做而实际上尚未做的动作。其否定式则表示过去不该做而实际上已经做的动作。两者都含有劝告,甚至责备意思

Those cells should have been kept in some dry places. 那些电池早就该放(或保存)在某些干燥的地方。(但实际上却没这样做。)

You should not have kept those cells in the damp place. 你不该把那些电池放在那块潮湿的地方。(但实际上却已经做了。)

You should not have gone back to work without the doctor’s permission. 未经医生许可,你本来就不应该回去工作。

You should have been looking after the children. Why haven’t you? 你本应照看这些小孩。但为什么不看着他们呢?

九、should 用于表示惊奇和欣喜的句子中,表示“竟然”、“居然”等含义

It is strange that the wheel should turn so slowly. 真怪,这个轮的转动竟如此之慢。

We are rejoiced that our calculations should be so accurate. 我们很高兴,我们的计算居然如此准确。

Why should the door be locked? 为什么居然把门锁起来了?

It is wonderful that you should have achieved so much in these years. 这几年中你们竟然取得如此大的成就,真了不起!(注意这里主语从句内出现时间状语 in these years, 一般要求用现在完成时,而使用 should 是为了表示惊异、赞叹意味。因此这里不能仅按上述第八条来理解,而必须注意上下文。)

十、注意 "Why (或 How) + should + …" 句型表示“不能理解”的事

Why should you speak so impolitely? 为什么你如此无礼貌地说话?

How should we students know? 我们学生怎么会知道呢?

十一、should 引申用于表示“或许”、“最好(有劝告含义)”

It should be about three o’clock. 现在也许三点钟左右。

You should see a doctor. 你最好去看一下医生。

You should be able to look around as you read this article and see some of these minerals. 当你读这篇文章时,你最好能往四周瞧瞧,并看到一些这样的矿物。

Since 的用法和判别

一、since 的四种用法

I. 引导原因从句:since 表示原因的意味稍弱,常译为“既然”,有时也可译“因为”。

Since displacement has direction, velocity also has direction. 既然物体的位移有方向,因此速度也有方向。

Since heat and work are convertible, the most important thing to know about any device is its efficiency. 既然热和功可以相互转换,那么对任何机械要了解的最重要的问题就是它的效率。(to know about 为 thing 的定语。)

Since (或 As) you do not know, therefore I shall have to tell you. 既然你不知道,所以我就不得不告诉你。(注意由 since 或 as 引出的原因状语从句,其后面的主句还可用 therefore 与之相呼应。但这都用于正式文体中。注意不能用 then 代替 therefore。)

注:常可用 inasmuch as (或 in as much as) 代替 since,以引出原因状语从句,但前者多用于书面语中。例如:

Inasmuch as (或 In as much as) it is not your fault, you needn't care. 既然这不是你的错,你就不必介意了。(也可用 since 代之。)

II. 引导时间从句,一般可译为“自从……以来”。

Nearly two thousand years has (或 have) passed since the Chinese first invented the compass. 自从中国人最先发明指南针以来,已过了近两千年了。

It is (或 has been) five years since I visited your father. 我已有五年没有拜访你的父亲了。(由“自从我拜访过你的父亲以来已有五年时间了”引申过来。)

It is five years since he taught English. 他不教英语已有五年。(仍按上例去理解。)

It is (或 has been) three years since she was a nurse. 她不当护士已有三年了。(由“自从她当过护士即后来不当护士以来已有三年”引申过来。)

It is a week since they left for Japan. 他们去日本已有一周了。(“他们离开这里去日本”的结果是“他们走了一不在这里”。故译为“去日本一周”是合适的。)

III. 介词 since 后接一个名词(有时接副词或短语),多半作时间状语可译为“自从…以来”。偶然作后置定语。

We have made great achievements since 1978 (或 since twenty two years ago). 自从1978年(或22午前)以来我们取得了伟大的成就。(这是站在 2000 年角度说上面这句话。)

I have not visited Europe any more since then. 从那时起,我再也没有访问过欧洲。

Since when has be been living here? 从何时起他一直住在这里?

How many periods does the history since 1949 fall into? 1949 年以后的历史可分为几个阶段呢?(注意 since 1949 不作状语,而作 the history 的定语。)

Ⅳ. 作副词用,可译为“从此以后”意思。

I met him in 1969 and have not seen him since. 我在 1969 年见过他,此后一直没有见到他。

She left home a week ago and I haven't heard from her since. 她一周以前离家,从那时起我一直未听到她的音讯。

二、since 用法的判别

I. 如果主句用完成时态,则 since 引导的从句通常是时间从句,除此以外,大多是原因从句。例如:

Computer shave found world-wide application since they were invented. 电从发明以来,就在世界范围内得到了广泛的应用。(时间从句)

They have been discussing the plan since we entered the meeting room. 从我们进入会议室以来,他们一直在讨论计划。(时间从句)

Since energy is defined the capacity to do work, we measure energy in units of work. 既然对能下的定义是作功的本领,因此我们就用功的单位来计量能的大小。(原因从句)

II. 当主句的主、谓语是 it is (或 was) 时,只有当 since 引导的从句内的动词是过去时或过去完成时的形式时,since 才作“自从……以来”解:

It is (was) two years since we improved (或 had improved) these tools. 自从我们改进这些工具以来,已经过了两年。(用括弧内词则译为:自从我们改进这些工具以来,当时已经有两年了。)必须指出,上句中的 is 也可用 has been 代之。近来也有趋势想用现在完成时代替 since 引出的时间状语从句内常用的一般过去时。

III. 至于 since 和名词构成介词短语,一般作时间状语用。since 单独使用时,一般作副词用。

So 的主要用法

一、副词 so 作“如此地”、“这样地”、“那样地”讲,有时代替上文中有关形容词、名词和动词,译成“也”或“确实”

Why (is that) so? 为什么这样呢?

Read just so. 就这样朗读。

a. We say she studies very hard, and so she does. 我们说她学习非常用功,而她确实如此。

b. We say she works well, and so does her brother. 我们说她工作好,而她的兄弟工作也好。(当后一句子主语与前一句相同,并且句意是表明上述内容属实,则后句中主语和谓语不必颠倒。如果前后两句主语不同,但情况相同,则后句中用 so 后的主语和谓语要颠倒一下。b 句即是如此。)

c. But as our population increases, so do the factories and chemicals. 但是随着人口增长,工厂和化学产品数量也增长了。(本句 as … so 相呼应,但 so 用法仍和 b 句相同。)

a. Sidney is a student, and so he is. 锡德尼是个学生,而他确实是个学生。

b. You are a net fan and so is she. 你是网迷,而她也是网迷。

A:It is going to snow. 快下雪了。

B:I think so. 我想是这样的。(=I think (that) it is going to snow.)

二、连词 so 作“因而”、“所以”解

The door was locked so he could not come in. 门锁工了,所以他不能进来。

They asked us to go, so we went. 他们要求我们去,因此我们就去了。

三、与 so 连用的一些常用词组

She does not speak English so well as you。她英语不如你说得好。

So far from being true, the news is false. 这消息决非真实可靠,而是虚假捏造。(本句中用 so 是表示强调。)

So far it has not happened. 直到如今此事尚未发生。

I have read only two pages or so. 我只读了两页左右。

You may borrow my electronic dictionary so long as you keep it clean. 只要你把我的电子词典保持干净,你就可借用这本词典。

So far as the noise is concerned, the colour TV set is out of order. 就杂音来说,这台彩电发生故障了。

As far as I know, he is so angry as not to be able to say a word. 据我所知,他气得连一句话都说不出来(句中 so…as 引出的不定式短语作结果状语用。)

He will have everything ready so as to keep you waiting. 他将做好一切准备,不使你等侯。(so as to 引出的不定式短语作目的状语用,也可用 in order to 代替。)

注:so that 和 so (或 such)… that 用法见下列专题。其它用法查语法目录。

So that 和 so (或 Such)… that 引导从句的用法和判别

一、so that 引导目的从句或结果从句。前者译“为了”、“以便”;后者译“以致于”、“使得”、“因此”

Please speak slowly so that we can take everything down. 请慢慢讲,以便我们能把一切内容都记下来。(目的)

The charges of the nucleus and electrons are equal, so that the atom is electrically neutral. 原子核和电子的电荷相等,因此原于在电的方面呈中性。(结果)

All these problems are hard enough, so that he cannot solve all of them. 所有这些问题都够难的,所以他不能全部解决。(结果)

Such waste materials must be treated so that they can be utilized. 这样一些些废料必须予以处理,才能利用。(目的)

They gave their “lives (so) that we might live a happy life. 他们牺牲自己生命是为了使我们过幸福生活。(目的)上述目的从句内,谓语动词一般和 may, can, should 等情态动词连用。这可以作为在结构形式上进行判别的一种标志。用 so that 引导的目的从句中,有时 "so that" 中的 "so" 省略,而在用 "so that" 引导的结果从句里,有时可以省略 "that"。例如:

We went early, so (that) we fulfilled our task on time. 我们去得早,所以准时完成了任务。(结果)

The crust of the earth has been carefully studied so (that) its make-up is well known. 地壳已经仔细研究了,因此它的构造是众所周知的。(结果)

I stepped aside so that she might (或 could) go in. 我走往一侧,好让她进去。(目的)

注:so that 引导结果状语从句时,常可用 with the result that 代替。例如:He worked hard, so that (或 with the result that) his work was finished in time. 他努力工作,所以工作按时完毕。

二、so (或such)… that 引导结果从句作“这么……,以致”或“所以”解在 so 后是形容词,副词或分词,而在 such 后是名词

A computer is such an important device that modern industry cannot develop without it. 计算机是这样重要的装置,没有它,现代工业就不能发展。

The temperature in the sun is so high that nothing can exist in the solid state. 太阳内的温度是如此之高,以致没有东西能以固态存在。

He left in such a hurry that he forgot to lock the door. 他如此匆忙离开,结果他忘了锁门。

She arrived so late that there were no seats left. 她到得很晚,结果没有座位留下。

Fast cooling the hot steel in water gives very hard steels, so hard that in certain cases they are used for cutting softer steels. 在水中快速冷却热钢,能得到很硬的钢,这种钢是如此之硬,以致于在某些情况下可用来切削较软的钢。

When a body can be divided into parts such that the center of mass of each is known, the center of mass of the whole can be usually found. 当将物体分成许多块,并已知其每块的质量中心时,则通常就能求出整个物体的质量中心。(没按原文结构翻译)

三、判别时几个值得注意的问题

I. 凡是用 so that 或 so (或 such)… that 引导的目的或结果状语从句,that 在从句中不可能作宾语和主语,这也是和由关系代词 that 引导的定语从句的重要区别。例如:

Oxygen is so important to life that we cannot live without it. 氧气对生命如此重要,以致于没有它,我们就活不了。(结果从句,that 不说明 life。)

The steel framework of a building is designed in such a way that it can expand and contract without damaging the structure. 建筑物的钢骨架是这样设计的,使得它能伸缩而不对结构有什么损坏。(结果从句,that 不说明 way。)

We keep the battery in a dry place so that electricity may not leak away. 我们把蓄电池存放在干燥处以免漏电。(目的从句,that 不说明 place。)

II. 一般说来,so 和 that 分开的复合句,that 引出结果状语从句就居多。可观察本文列举的例句。

III. so that 引出的从句内出现情态动词,则大多数是目的状语从句。详见本文有关例句。

Ⅳ. 最后必须从意义上是否合乎逻辑来进行核查。对于上述 A 和 B 两种情况说来,都要用逻辑判断作为最后核查。只有这样,才能查出例外情况。例如:

It was raining, so that we couldn't go out。当时正下着雨,所以我们没能出去。(结果状语从句,尽管从句内出现情态动词 couldn't。)

I shall put the gear here so that he will see it when he comes. 我将把齿轮放在这里,以便他来时就会看到。(目的状语从句,尽管从句内无情态动词。)

Soon, No sooner… than 和 As soon as 的用法

一、副词 soon 作“不久”、“早”讲

We shall soon know the result. 我们不久(即将)知道结果。

What made you come so soon? 是什么原因使你来得这么早?

I will put the plan into practice sooner or later. 我迟早要实现这个计划。

We started soon after sunrise. 日出不久我们就出发了。(叙述往事)

注:有时 soon 和 fast 译成汉语时都表示“快”,但前者指时间的迟早中的早,后者指动作快慢中的快。例如:

You will soon go to the factory. 你们很快要下厂了。(指时间的早)

Speak to me as fast as you can. 你对我说话能多快就多快。(指说话速度的)

二、“no sooner… than”一般用于叙述过去事情,表示“一…就…”的意思。如果表示否定的短语 no sooner 位于句首,后面主、谓语就颠倒

No sooner had we reached this conclusion than they agreed to it. 我们一得出这个结论,他们就同意了。

No sooner had the words been spoken than he realized that he should have remained silent. 话一出口,他便意识到他本该保持沉默。

We had no sooner reached the station than the train was off. 我们刚到车站,火车就开走了。

注:than 后面的状语从句,常用过去时。主句动作一般发生在从句之前,只是否定式而已,故用过去完成时。

三、“as soon as”引导的是时间从句,作“一……就……”讲(详见第 15 节第 42 条)

As soon as I saw him, I told him what we needed. 我一见他,就告诉了他,我们需要什么。

I will let you fly to Shanghai as soon as we complete the work. 我们把这项工作一做完,我就让你飞往上海。

注 1:主句的动作是在时间状语从句的动作之后发生的,但主句和从句常用一般过去时。上面第 2 句由于用来叙述将来的动作,故主句用将来时,而时间状语从句像往常一样,只能用现在时代替实际上的将来时。由于从句动作毕竟是在主句动作之前发生,偶尔也有使用过去完成时的情况。例如:

1)As soon as she discovered her errors, she made the necessary corrections to her data. (那时)她一发现有错,她就对自己的数据作必要的修改。

2)He didn't arrive as soon as we had expected. 我们早就料到,他到不了。(as soon as 并非引出时间状语从句。)

四、注意都表示“一……就……”的几个同义句的表达式

a. She sent an e-mail as soon as she received a letter from you. 她一接到你的来信就发了一个电子邮件。同义的句子如下:

b. She had no sooner received a letter from you than she sent an e-mail.

c. She had scarcely (或 hardly) received letter from you when (或 before) she sent an e-mail.

a. As soon as I had done that, I realized I had made a mistake. 我一做完那件事就意识到我犯了一个错误。同义的句子如下:

b. Directly (或 Immediately, The monment, The instant) I had done that, I realized I had made a mistake.

c. Shortly after I had done that, I realized I had made a mistake.

五、注意“主语 + would (或 had) + as soon + … + as + 被弃事物或动作”这种句型,它表示“宁愿…而不…”之意

He would (just) as soon have an internet chat with net friends as go for a walk. 他宁愿和网友在网上聊天,而不愿出去散步。

He would (或 had) as soon you took a glass of tea as a glass of milk. 他希望你与其喝一杯牛奶,还不如喝一杯茶。

I’d go there as soon as not. 我更愿去那边。(由“我宁愿去那边而且不是不愿去那边”引申过来。)

注:这里用 would 或 had 表示虚拟语气。

六、注意“主语 + would + sooner + 原形动词… + than + 原形动词”这种句型,它表示“宁愿早点…而不愿…”之意

I would sooner leave than stay at home. 我宁肯离开,而不愿留在家里。

Sooner than do such a thing, I would stay here. 我宁可留在这里,也不愿做这样的事。

Wouldn't you sooner take this medicine than be sick? 你宁可不吃药而甘愿生病吗?

注:这里用 would 表示虚拟语气。

Spite(主要是 In spite of)用法

一、“in spite of + 宾语”作让步状语用,表示“不顾”、“尽管”、“虽然”之意

We shall go in spite of the rain. 尽管下雨,我们仍将去。

In spite of (或 Disregarding) the difficulties, we must carry (或 bring) the work to completion. 虽然有困难,但我们必须完成这项工作。

注:联系 for all… 也含有“尽管”、“不顾”之意。例如:For all this (或 all that),she helped me. 虽然(或尽管)如此,她还是帮了我。

二、“in spite of the fact that…(从句)作“不顾……事实”讲

In spite of the fact that at first you did not succeed, you must try again. 尽管你第一次未成功,但你必须再试。(原意为:不必顾虑第一次未成功的事实……。)

注:in spite of, not with standing 和 despite (of) 都作介词用,可互相替换。in spite of 语气较强,not with standing 语气较弱,而 despite(后面 of 现极少使用)较雅。较常见的是用 regardless of 和 disregarding 来替换。例如:

1)We'll go to the software development company despite (或 not with standing) the rain. 尽管下雨了,我们仍将去软件开发公司。 2)Some people act regardless (或 despite, in spite of) what will happen afterward. 有些人做事不考虑会有什么后果产生。

Still 的用法和注意点

一、形容词 still 作“静”、“寂静的”、“静止的”讲

still water 静水;still lemonade 无气柠檬水

All sounds are still. 万籁俱寂。

Please keep still while I take the photograph! 我拍照时请别动!

二、“副词 still + 比较级”表示“还要或更…”之意

In appearance this computer is still better than that one. 从外表上看,这台计算机比那台更好。(由“…还要好”引申过来。还可用 even yet 代替 still。)

Molecules are formed from still smaller particles called atoms. 分子由称之为原子的更小的粒子形成。(同上)

注:有时也可用“比较级 + still”,意思同上。

三、副词 still 作“仍旧”、“仍然”讲

He is still busy; he has not finished his work yet. 他仍然很忙;他尚未结束工作。

If heat is still added, the temperature of the boiling water does not rise anymore. 如果再加热,沸水的温度也不再上升。

四、副词 still 修饰全句,作“可是”、“还”讲

Still, you must help him repair the air-conditioner. 可是,你必须帮助他修理这台空调器。

The weather is very hot; still it is not unbearable. 天气很热,但还不是令人受不了。

He is busy, (but) still he will carry out another test. 他很忙,可是他还要做另外一个试验。

五、动词 still 作“使得…平静”讲

Anything cannot still the sea. 任何东西都不能使海洋平静下来。

六、词组 still less (何况), still more(况且)分别用于否定和肯定句

He never thought of the test flight, still less did he conduct it. 他从没想到这次试飞,更谈不上去做了。

He repairs the machine, still more does he set it to pieces. 他会修理机器,那就更会拆机器了。

七、同音词 still(n.) 作“蒸馏釜”讲

The liquid remaining in the still contains much free acid. 蒸馏釜内剩下的液体含有许多游离酸。

八、几点注意

I. 注意 still 的词序以及在比较级前出现作“还要”、“更加”讲。

He is standing still. 他站着不动。(形容词)

He is still standing. 他仍然站着。(副词)

For some time to come, then, we can still safely say that human brains are still complex than computers. 那么在未来一段时间内,我们仍可放心地说,人脑比计算机还要(或更加)复杂。

II. 注意 still less, still more 在否定和肯定句中用法(见上述第六项。)

III. still 除作名词、动词用外,在其它大部分情况下作“仍然”讲。

That 和 Those 的基本用法和判别

一、that 的基本用法

I. that 表示“那”、“那个”,而 those 表示“那些”。两者都作定语用。

He is using that electronic dictionary. 他正在使用那个电子辞典。

This portable phone is smaller than that one. 这个手机比那个(手机)小。

These IP phones work better than those ones. 这些 IP 电话(指网络电话)比那些(IP 电话)工作好。

II. that, those 作指示代词。

A. 用以指示所说及的单个人或物,有时代表前面句子的整个意思。

This is a manager; that is a student. 这是一位经理;那是一位学生。

These are machines; those are instruments. 这些是机器;那些是仪表。

Computers are of great help to our technicians. That is why we widely use them in different branches of science and engineering. 计算机对我们的工程技术人员大有帮助,这就是为什么我们在各个不同的科学和工程部门中广泛使用计算机的缘故。(that 代替前面整个句子。)

He makes mistakes in spelling, and that very often. 他拼错单词,并且常犯。(同上)

She has studied chemistry for years and that under the guidance of a well-known professor. 她学习化学多年,并且还是在一位有名教授指导下学习的。(同上)

You must tell him, and that at once. 你必须告诉他,而且是马上告诉他。(这里 that 实际上代表前面整个句子。)

The snow began to come down and that in earnest. 开始下雪了,而且下得很大。(句中 that 实际上代表 to come down 这个词组的相应形式。in earnest 原意是“认真地”,而这里系意译。)

注:有时 and that 引出一个并列的从句。例如:This means that the current increases proportionately to every decrease of resistance, and that the current decreases proportionately to any increase of resistance. 这意味着,电流的增加和电阻的减小成正比,而电流的减小和电阻的增加成正比。

B. 用以避免重复某一名词(避免重复某复数名词时就用 those)。

This furniture is different from that. 这种家具不同于那种(家具)。(that 后不能加 one, 因 furniture 为不可数名词。)

The most common acceleration is that of freely falling bodies. 最普通的加速度是自由落体的加速度。

The volume of the sun is much larger than that of the earth. 太阳的体积比地球的体积大得多。

Natural water is that which contains impurities. 天然水是含有杂质的一种水。

The tasks of the manager are greater than those of his assistant. 经理的任务比他的助手大。

The atoms of one element are different from those of all other elements. 一种元素的原子不同于所有其它元素的原子。

To purify water in this way is cheaper than that of many other processes. 用这种方法净化水比许多其它过程净化水便宜。(that 代替前面顶一个名词作主语用的不定式短语。)

III. that 作关系代词(代替人或物),引导限制性定语从句。当 that(或 which)在定语从句中作宾语或介词宾语时常可省略(见下列第 2,3,4 句)。

They are the graduate students that (或 who) have designed a new generation of computer. 他们是设计新一代计算机的研究生。

This is the same instrument (that) I used yesterday. 这就是我昨天所用的那个相同的仪器。(也可用 the same…as 代替 the same…that。)

Power is the rate (that) mechanical work is performed at. 功率是作机械功的速率。

He is reading over there the book (that) he bought yesterday. 他在那边正在读他昨天买的那本书。

In fact, he had designed machines that he thought would fly. 事实上他已设计了他认为会飞的机器。(注意这里 he thought 为插入句,that 仍接一个定语从句。)

When I think of a word that I am not sure I can spell, I use the electronic dictionary. 当我想到一个我没有把握能拼写出来的单词时,我就使用电子辞典。

注:注意 that 作关系副词并引出定语从句(详见本专题第 Ⅸ 项)。

Ⅳ. that 作从属连接词,在句中没有实在意义,只起连接从句的作用,引导主语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句或表语从句。注意其中由句首 that 引出主语从句较少见。常见的是用 it 作先行代词,然后在主句后接主语从句。宾语从句由 that 引出的,也有先用先行代词 it,然后在适当位置由 that 引出宾语从句。

That lightning is nothing else but an electric spark has long been known. 闪电不外乎是电火花而已,人们早就知道。(主语从句)

It was known long ago that air has pressure. 很早以前,人们就知道空气有压强。(主语从句。也可写成:That air has pressure was known long ago. )

I think it necessary that he (should) carry out this test. 我认为有必要让他进行这一试验。(宾语从句,而 it 为形式宾语,necessary 为宾语补语。)

This shows that something unexpected may have turned up. 这表明可能出现了意料不到的情况。(宾语从句)

Liquids are like solids in that they have a definite volume. 液体和固体一样,都有一定的体积。(介词宾语从句)

Now they all know the fact that China has been greatly changed. 现在他们都知道中国变化大这个事实。(同位语从句)

The truth is that the current increases with every decrease of resistance. 电流随每次电阻减小而增加,这是真理。(表语从句)

Their suggestion remains that the working conditions should be changed. 他们的建议依然是要改变工作条件。(表语从句)

That he speaks softly is no proof that he is kind. 他说话温和决不能证明他为人仁慈。(句首 That 引出主语从句,第二个 that 引出同位语从句。)

There is nothing (that) I want more than that you should be happy and contented. 我要的就是让你愉快满意,别无其它。(nothing 后为定语从句,than 后的名词从句内容是和前面 nothing I want 相比较,而 more than… 为 nothing 的后置定语。)

We are sure (that) the plan has been thought out very carefully, indeed. 我们确信那个计划确是非常仔细地考虑出来的。(宾语从句)

注:当不用从句而用词组来表示时,多半是在 sure, afraid 等词之后改用 of…,如上句可改为;We are sure of the plan. 我们确信那个计划。

a. We are afraid (that) it will rain today. 我们怕今天下雨。(宾语从句)

b. We are not afraid of any difficulty. 我们不怕任何困难。

I know that my task is difficult. Also that I should do my best to fulfill it in time. 我知道任务艰巨,也知道应该尽力而为,及时完成。(第二句实质上是和第一句中的宾语从句并列的。)

V. 由 that, so (或 such) that, so (或 such)… that, in order that, to the end that, only that 引导原因从句、目的从句、结果从句、条件从句。例如:

I am sorry that I have given you so much trouble. 对不起,给你添了那么多麻烦。(原因状语从句。句中 that 还可省略。)

He is glad that he has heard from his teacher. 他接到老师来信,感到很高兴。(原因状语从句。句中 that 还可省略。)

注:能引导上述类型的原因状语从句的主句表语,一般都是表示情感的形容词。例如:thankful(感激的),surprised(惊奇的),proud(自豪,骄傲),satisfied(满意的),pleased(愉快的),annoyed(烦恼的),disappointed(失望的),content(满足的)等。

We must keep ourselves healthy that (或so that) we may study and work well. 我们必须保持身体健康,才能学习得好,工作得好。(目的状语从句)

The product contains so little impurity that it is impossible to measure it by an ordinary method. 该产品中杂质含量如此之少,以致用普通方法都不能测得。(结果状语从句)

The structure of the instrument must be designed in such a way that it can stand any vibration. 这种仪表的结构务必设计成能经受住任何震动。(结果状语从句)

When the state or condition of a body is such that it can do work, the body is said to possess energy. 当物体处于能作功的状态或条件时,我们就说该物体具有能量。(结果状语从句)

The watt is a small unit of power, so (that) we use the kilowatt instead. 瓦特是功率的小单位,因此我们用千瓦代替。(结果状语从句)

In order that such a reaction maybe possible, heat must be removed from the gas. 为了使这种反应可能发生,必须从气体中移去热量。(目的状语从句)

He shouted at the top of his voice, to the end that (或 in order that) he might be heard. 他尽力大声喊叫,为的使别人能够听见。(目的状语从句)

She would help you, only that she is too busy. 要不是她太忙,她是愿意帮助你的。(条件从句。实际上她帮助不了你,故用 would 表示虚拟语气。)

He often praises others only that he may be praised. 他常常只是为了求得别人的表扬而称赞别人。(目的状语从句)

Ⅵ. that 用在加强语气的“It is… that”结构里(详见第 57 节、一、V):

It was the student that showed his interest in this problem. 就是这个学生曾对该问题表示过感兴趣。(强调主语)

It is in the place that we often have meetings. 这就是我们经常开会的地方。(强调状语)

It was the letter that he wrote in haste yesterday. 他昨天匆匆忙忙写的正是这封信。(强调宾语)

It was because they asked me to do this work that I did it. 正是因为他们请我做这项工作,我才做的。(强调状语从句)

Ⅶ. that is (= i.e.) 连用,作“也就是”讲,在句中前后用逗号与其它部分隔开,作插入语用

Nickel steel is also elastic, that is, it can stand vibration, shocks, and wear. 镍钢也是有弹性的,即它能经受震动、冲击和磨损。

Ⅷ. that 作状语用,表示“那样”、“那么”含义:

We can't walk that far. 我们不能走那么远。

I have done only that much. 我只做了那么多。

If the tool is that bad, you mustn't use it. 如果工具那样坏,那末你们就不可使用了。

He was that (或 so) hungry he could have eaten a horse. 当时他是那么饿,简直能吃一匹马。

Ⅸ. 注意 that 可作关系副词,引出定语从句。

This was the reason that (= why) we raised the temperature. 这是我们升高温度的理由。(定语从句)

1949 was the year that(= when)the People’s Republic of China was founded. 1949 年是中华人民共和国成立的年份。(定语从句)

It is time that you (should) clean out the room. 现在该是你打扫房间的时候了。(定语从句,其中 that 还可省略。)

"Long live our Motherland!" We shouted with the loudest voice that (=with which) we could. “我们的祖国万岁!”我们以我们能呼喊的最大声音呼喊着。

This is not the way that (= in which) we did the test last time. 这不是我们上次做试验用的方法。

Water can dissolve many other substances. We take advantage of this property every time that we add some sugar to a cup of tea. 水能溶解许多其它物质。每当我们将一些糖放入一杯茶中时,就是利用了水的这种性能。(every time that 引出时间状语从句,其中 that 还可省略。)

注:上述六句中 that 都是关系副词。对于第 6 句中的 that,也可理解为引出定语从句。只是现在都简便地将 every time that 看作引出时间状语从句而已。

X. 含 that 固定词组引出其它从句:

Not that the English book is hard to read, but that he has no time. 不是由于这本英语书难读,而是因为他没有时间。(句中两个 that 可理解为相当于 because 之意,也可理解为句首省略了 it is。)

But that you provided us with necessary information we would not have started there search so soon. 要不是你们向我们提供必要的信息,我们不会如此早地开始做这项研究的。(非真实条件从句)

In that he is the monitor, he should preside at the meeting. 因为他是班长,所以他应该主持会议。(原因状语从句)

Now (that) I have finished my lessons, I intend to go for a walk. 既然我已做完功课,我就想去散步。(原因状语从句)

It will be more expensive to run a car now that petrol has gone up. 由于汽油已经上涨,开汽车花费就会贵了。(原因状语从句)

Now that you mention it, I do remember. 你一提,我就会想起来了。(now that 引出时间状语从句,其中 that 还可省略。)

We like him for the reason that he works hard. 我们喜欢他是因为他努力工作。(for the reason that 引出原因状语从句。)

二、that 用法的判别

I. 用以避免重复某一名词而用的 that,只代替单数名词(见本节、一 Ⅱ B 第 1,2,3,4 句);若代替复数名词,得用 those(同前,第 5,6 句)。但有时得注意用 that 代替前面复数名词表示的事物中的一个。例如:

Mixing is used to produce simple physical mixtures, such as that of two or more miscible fluids, two or more uniformly divided solids, or a mixture of phases where no reaction or changes of particle size take place. 混合用于产生简单的物理混合物,例如由两种或两种以上的可溶混流体组成的混合物、两种或两种以上均匀细碎的固体组成的混合物或者不起反应或不发生粒度变化的两相或多相混合物。(句中 that 代替前面复数名词 mixtures 中的一个。)

II. 关系代词 that 在定语从句内则可代表前面单数或复数的名词(见 本节、一 Ⅲ 第 1,2 句)。当它在从句中作主语时,可以根据从句中谓语的数来判别 that 代替的名词是单数还是复数。

There are many thousands of stars in the sky that are like the sun. 天空中有千万个像太阳一样的星球。(that 后用 are,只能说明复数名词 stars,而不能说明 sky。)

Light waves are waves of energy that travel through space at the rate of 186,000 miles per second. 光波是以每秒 186,000 英里的速度通过空间的能波。(句中 that 之后的谓语 travel 是第三人称复数形式,故 that 不能说明 energy,而是说明 waves of energy 的。)

III. 前有 so, such, 后有 that 引导的从句,但 that 在从句中没有实在意义,不作句子成分,这乃是目的从句或结果从句的特征(见 本节、一 V 第 3~7 句)。但要注意其中省略 so 或 that 引出结果从句或目的从句的情况(见下列第 1,2,3 句)。除上述情况外,若前面没有 so, such 或 in order 等,that 在句中又不作句子成分,则可以根据句子逻辑意义、主句谓语要求和主句结构中缺少什么成分进行综合分析。在该情况下,多半是主语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句、表语从句(见下列第 4,5,6,7 句)。

The parts must be very strong (so) that they may not break in use. 零件必须十分坚固,才不会在使用中破损。(目的状语从句)

Something may be wrong (so) that (或 with the result that) the machine has stopped running. 可能有什么东西出了毛病,结果机器停止了运转。(结果状语从句)

We went early, so (that) we fulfilled our task in time. 我们去得早,所以按时完成了任务。(结果状语从句)

That A plus B is C is quite clear to all of us. 我们都清楚,A + B 等于 C。(主语从句。本句也可写成:It is quite clear to all of us that A plus B is C. 这时句中 It 为形式主语。)

We say that force is the action of one body on another. 我们说,力就是一物体对另一物体的作用。(宾语从句)

There can be no doubt that we shall succeed. 毫无疑问,我们会成功的。(同位语从句)

The fact is that my home computer works well. 事实是我的家用计算机工作很好。(表语从句)

Ⅳ. that 引导定语从句时,that 必须在从句中顶一个成分,这是判别 that 引导定语从句还是其它从句的一个重要标志。

Matter is anything that occupies space and possesses weight. 物质是任何占据空间并具有重量的东西。(定语从句。that 在定语从句内作主语。)

Joe made notes of everything (that) he read. 那时乔对于他所阅读的内容都作笔记。(定语从句。that 作宾语,并可省略。)

注:在 all, the thing, everything, anything, nothing 等这类词后有 that 修饰的定语从句时,只要 that 在定语从句内作动词的宾语或介词的宾语,在科技英语会话中多半被省略。

We know (that) sound can travel through air. 我们知道声音能够通过空气传播. (宾语从句。that 不作成分。)

An atom is so small that we cannot see it. 原子小得很,(以致)我们不能看见它。(结果状语从句。that 不作成分。)

V. 注意 that 省略的几种情况。

A. 在定语从句中,that 作动词的宾语或介词的宾语时可省略:

This is the Benz (that) I bought yesterday. 这是我昨天买的那辆奔驰车。

Liquids take on the shape of the container (that) they are placed in. 液体呈现盛它的容器的形状。

This is not the good bridge (that) I thought it to be。这不是我所想的那种好桥梁。(that 在定语从句内作宾语的“表语”。)

B. 注意科技文章中 that 代替 direction, distance, times 并在定语从句中作宾语或状语时被省略的情况。

One light year is the distance (that) light travels in one year. 一个光年是光在一年内走的路程。(作状语)

The direction of a magnetic field is the direction (that) the north pole of the compass point sin. 磁场的方向就是指南针北极所指的方向。(作介词 in 的宾语)

C. "so (或 such) that…”句型中有时省略 that,多半是结果状语从句,见下面第 1 句。用 that 引导的原因状语从句,有时也可以省略 that,见下面第 2 句。一般可根据逻辑判断。

The sound is so weak (that) you cannot hear it. 声音弱得你听不见(它)。(结果状语从句)

We are delighted (that) you can come. (因为)你能来,我们感到愉快。(原因状语从句)

D. 在 know, think, consider, find, say 等常用动词后的宾语从句内,常可省略连词 that; 在 sure, afraid, aware, convinced 等词后接宾语从句时,连词 that 也常可省略。

I think (that) his test will fail of success. 我认为他的试验不会成功。

We know (或 We are aware) (that) she will make her way. 我们知道她在事业上会有进展的。

I am sure (或 I am convinced) (that) your teachers are strict with you. 我确信,你们的老师对你们很严格。

注:尤其在口语中,甚至主语从句中的连词 that 都可省略。例如:

It is a pity you can’t go with us. 你不能和我们一起去,真是遗憾。

Ⅵ. 注意几个 that 连锁使用的情况。

You must remember, however, that the laws that apply to air apply to all other gases. 但是你必须牢记,那些适用于空气的定律,也适用于所有其它气体。(第一个 that 连接一个宾语从句,第二个 that 引导一个定语从句。)

Fruit sand vegetables that are grown in gardens that are treated only with organic fertilizers, that are not sprayed with poisonous insecticides, and that are not refined after harvest, are organic foods. 只施有机肥的园子里生长的水果和蔬菜都是有机食物。它们不用毒性杀虫剂喷洒,收获后不进行净制处理。(句中第一、三、四个 that 引出并列的三个定语从句,都修饰句首主语。第二个 that 是修饰前面 gardens 的定语从句。主句谓语为句末的 are organic foods.)

It is well known that the electron tube has been largely replaced by the transistor, that wonderful electronic device that can do practically anything (that) the electron tube can do, and more. 众所周知,电子管已基本上被晶体管所代替。晶体管是一种很出色的电子器件,电子管能做的事,它几乎都能做,甚至还能超过。(第一个 that 连接主语从句,第二个 that 作同位语的定语用,第三、四个 that 引出定语从句,而第四个 that 还可省略。)

That girl said (that) that “that” that that boy wrote on the blackboard was wrong. 那个女孩说,那个男孩在黑板上写的那个 "that" 是错的。(本句共有六个that。第一个修饰 girl。第二个 that 是连接宾语从句的从属连接词,在 say, know, think, consider 等动词后面接宾语从句时,一般可以省略不用。第三个 that 作定语用,修饰带引号的已名词化 "that",而第五个 that 引导一个定语从句,说明前面带引号的 "that"。第六个 that 是定语,修饰 boy。)

Ⅶ. 在定语从句中关系代词 that 和which用法比较

A. 关系代词 that 只能用于限制性定语从句,而 which 既能用于限制性定语从句,又能用于非限制性定语从句。

Almost all airplanes are equipped with the instruments that (或 which) enable them to fly blind. 几乎所有的飞机都设置一些能使飞机靠仪表飞行的操纵仪表。(限制性定语从句)

The receiving station feeds the signals into the receiving machine, which types the message automatically. 接收站将信号送进接收机,而接收机将信息自动打印出来。(which 引出非限制性定语从句,不能用 that 代替 which。)

B. 在限制性定语从句内关系代词 that 不仅能代表物,而且还能代表人,而 which 只能代表物。但 which 能作介词宾语,而 that 则不能,除非介词挪到定语从句末。

Einstein was one of the greatest scientists that ever lived. 爱因斯坦是世上最伟大的科学家之一。(句中 that 不可用 which 代之,但可用 who 代之。)

We have studied out a method by which the agricultural production could be raised on a large scale. 我们研究出一种能使农业大规模增产的方法。(句中不能用 that 代替 which, 因 which 在这里作介词宾语。)

Beijing is the place that (或 which) the leaders of our country work and live in. 北京是我国领导人工作和居住的地方。(句中 that 或 which 还可省略。)

注 1:当 which 在定语从句内作表语或宾补时,也可指人。

注 2:有时偶而看到“in (或 except 等其它介词) + that…(接从句)”。注意这时 that 一般引出一个介词宾语从句,that 在从句内不作成分,无实在意义。例如:

Water is unusual in that the density of the solid phase, ice, is lower than that of the liquid phase, water. 水很不寻常,因为它的固相(冰)的密度比它的液相(水)的密度要低。(句中第一个 that 引出 in 的介词宾语从句。也可理解为 in that 引出一个原因状语从句。在这两种情况下 that 都只作连词用。第二个 that 代替前面的 the density。)

Radio waves are like light waves, except that their wave lengths are much longer. 无线电波和光波相似,所不同的只是无线电波的波长要长得多。

“比较级 + than”的用法和注意点

一、用于对两者进行比较。在 than 后面的比较状语从句内,与主句相同部分可省略,而不同部分须写出。有时 than 后的从句有主语、谓语颠倒现象

This multimedia computer works better than my PC (或 personal computer). 这台多媒体计算机比我的个人计算机运作得好。

We can hear sounds with frequencies greater than 16 and less than 20,000 vibrations per second. 我们能听到频率为每秒钟大于 16 次和小于 20,000 次振动的声音。(比较级形容词短语作后置定语。)

This work is more difficult than I thought. 这项工作比我原先想的还要艰巨。

In some places, the oceans are deeper than a mountain is high. 有些地方海洋深度大于山峰的高度。

The bridge will be completed earlier than (it will) when I am out. 这座桥的竣工时间将比我外出不在时还提前。(意译)

Copper wire allows a larger current than does iron wire. 铜丝容许通过的电流比铁丝大。(does 为代动词。注意 than 后主语、谓语可能颠倒。)

This condenser is of higher capacity than is actually needed. 这个电容器的容量比实际需要的大. (注意 than 后面的从句省略了主语 it.)

In science, more than in any other human institution, it is necessary to search out the past in order to understand the present and to control the future. 科学比任何其它社会事业更需要探索既往,以便了解现在,掌握将来。(本句中两个不同部分进行比较的是地点状语,只是其位置在句首而已。译文也未按原文结构翻译。)

He is a better than average pianist. 他是位中上等的钢琴家。

However, under these conditions grass is more sensitive than normal to short age of water. 可是,在这些条件下,草对缺水比正常情况要敏感。

As she was tired after a long walk, she went to bed much earlier than usual. 由于厂距离步行后感到疲乏,她去睡觉就比平时为早。(注意不能用 usually 代替 usual)。

注:注意“more than + 形容词或分词”的用法可理解为“很…”或“超过”等。例如:

1)She is more than glad to help others. 她帮助别人感到很高兴。

2)I am more than pleased with the result. 我对结果深为满意。

3)Then the more-than-human inventor of electric lamps was only 34 years old. 那时这位超人的电灯发明家才 34 岁。

注:本项内的 more 也可改为其它比较级。例如:"Challenger" was travelling in a lower-than-planned or bit. “挑战者号”那时正在比预定计划为低的轨道上运行。

二、单个 more 是 many(“许多”,用于可数名词复数)和 much(“许多”,用于不可数名词)的比较级

In this container there is more water than in that one. 这个容器内的水比那个容器多。

Pig iron is an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content more than 2.0 percent. 生铁是铁和碳的合金,其中碳含量大于 2.0%。

He has more English books than I (have 或 do). 他的英语书比我多。

三、注意比较级和 than 割裂的情况

This small lamp has a higher resistance than that large one. 这个小灯泡的电阻比那个大灯泡的大。

In this device there are more machine parts than in that one. 在这个装置内机器零件比那个装置多。

We have collected more materials from the computer network than from the books. 我们从计算机网络收集的材料已比从书中收集的多。(意译)

Our company has produced more mobile phones this year than last year. 我公司今年生产的移动电话比去年多。

有时,比较级和 than 之间甚至插进了一个从句。例如:

In this case you will expect liquids to expand more when (they are) heated than solids do. 在本情况下,你会料想到液体受热时要比固体膨胀得多。

You get more tired when you lift a heavy load than a light one. 举一个重物时,你就觉得比举一个轻物要累。

四、注意比较级前加 much, a lot, a great deal, many, far, by far, still 或 even, a little, a bit, 数字 + times, any (如 any more 或 any longer 等用于疑问句或否定句)等

We must unite to win still greater victories. 我们必须团结起来争取更大的胜利。

Computers translate English into Chinese much (或 far) faster than we. 计算机英译汉比我们快得多。

Sound travels much more slowly than light. 声音的传播比光慢得多。

T1 is a lot higher than T2 . T1 比 T2 高得多。(句中 a lot 也可用 much 或 a great deal 代之,意思相同。若用 more than ten degrees 代替 a lot,则句意变为:T1 比 T2 高 10 度以上。)

He has learnt many more English words than I. 他学的英语单词比我多得多. (由于 words 是可数名词,故必须用 many, 不能用 much.)

The furnace should be built a little (或 a bit) higher than that one. 这个炉子应比那个炉子修建得稍高一点。

This method is far better than that one. 这种方法远比那种方法好。(也可用 by far 代之,而 by far 置于句末更妥。)

It is even (或 still) faster than the fastest plane. 这比最快的飞机还要(或更)快。

This rod is 4 inches longer than that one. 这根杆比那根长四英寸。(净增加数值)

He runs twice faster than I. 他跑步比我快一倍。(通常理解为快一倍,极少理解为快两倍。)

五、注意 not 和 no 同“比较级 + than”连用时的含义差别(见第 76 节第二项)

六、以 -or 结尾的七个形容词有比较级含意,却不用 than 连接一个比较状语从句,而用介词 to 引出一个被比较的对象

This IP phone is (much 或 far) superior in quality to that one. 这部网络电话的质量比那部(远为)优越。

My knowledge is (far 或 much) inferior to yours. 我的知识远远不如你。

My arrival in Beijing is posterior to that of Prof. Lu. 我比卢教授后到达北京。

注:上述带 -or 的形容词比较级一般无相应的原级,前面不能用 very 之类副词修饰。类似的还有 senior(年长于),junior(年幼于),anterior(早于),prior(较先于)等。其中只有 superior 和 inferior 允许前面加 much 或 far。

七、用比较级形式表示最高级含义的方法

The College of Education Building is higher than all other buildings (或 any other buildings) in this town. 在这个城镇内,教育学院大楼比所有(或任何)其它楼高。

He is taller than any his classmates. 他的身材比他的所有同学高。(把他自己不包括在被比较的范围内。本句不再用 other,因后面 his 已表明。)

The moon is much closer to the earth than any stars. 月亮比任何星球离地球近得多。(月亮不算行星或恒星。不属于同类比较’就不必加 other。)

八、注意带比较级的主句中有省略成分

Better to do well than to say well. 说得好不如做得好。(句首省略 It is)

Easier said than done. 说易做难。(完整说法是:It is easier to be said than to be done. )

九、“the + 比较级……(从句),+ the + 比较级……(主句)”结构表示“越……越……”之意

The more you practise, the more you know. 实践越多,知道越多。

The warmer water (is), the faster it evaporates. 水越热,蒸发得越快。

The smaller the particles (are), the more freely do they move. 粒子越小,动得越自由。(本句第二部分主谓语不颠倒也可,即去掉 do。)

The more you learn, the more you find you don't know. 学得越多,就发现知道东西越少。(未按原文结构翻译。注意第二个 the more 是和 find 后的宾语从句的谓语 don't know 有关。)

The harder you work, the greater progress you will make. 你越用功,你进步就越大。(当后面的主句为将来时态时,本句型的从句要用现在时代替将来时。)

The harder the shrub is to grow, the higher (is) the price. 灌木越难长高,其价格就越高。

The sooner, the better. 越快越好。

More haste, worse speed. 欲速则不达。

上述各句中,第一部分是比较状语从句,第二部分为主句。主句和从句之间的逗号有时就可不用。本句型中的比较级前的 the 并不是冠词,而是副词。前面的 the 有 by how much 含义,而后面的 the 有 by so much 含义。本句型常省略某些成分:系动词 is, are 常可省略(见第 2,3,6 句),有时连主语和谓语都不见了(见第 7 句),甚至比较级前的 the 也都省略了(见第 8 句)。有时主句中主语、谓语可能出现颠倒现象(见第 3 句)。

十、注意“正常语序 + 比较级…(主句),the + 比较级…(从句)”结构的用法

Therefore a compound is considered the more stable, the smaller its potential energy. 因此势能越小,化合物就被认为越稳定。(=Therefore the smaller the potential energy, the more stable a compound is considered. )

You sing the better, the more you practise. 练习越多就唱得越好。 (the more you practise, the better you sing.)

An object draws the harder, the more matter it contains. 物体含有的质量越多,它的引力就越大。(=The more matter an object contains, the harder it draws.)

这里,比较状语从句在主句之后。这是根据主句中主语和谓语等句子成分是正常语序,不是“the + 比较级”在句首这种形式来判断的,但在翻译时,仍必须先译从句,后译主句。

注 1:如果用连词 when 将主句和从句连接起来,主句和从句仍用比较级以表示“越……越……”含义,则“the + 比较级”不必置于句首,并且其中 the 也根本不必加。例如:When we encounter more difficulties, we should be more spirited; when we are more at danger, we should be more courageous. 遇到困难越多,就越应振作精神;处境越危险,就越应鼓足勇气。

注 2:有时主句虽无比较级,但仍有词表示增减含意,而这时比较状语从句仍在主句后面,仍用“the + 比较级…”结构。例如:The temperature of the earth is the higher the deeper you go. 你越往深处探测,地球温度就越高。

注 3:表示“越……越……”含义的近义句不少,但用法不完全相同. 请参阅第 12 节、三。

注 4:注意下列句中“the + 形容词比较级”已名词化了:There were two rooms in the beach house, the smaller of which served as a kitchen. 那时这幢海滨房子里有两个房间,其中较小的一间作厨房用。

There be 结构及 there exists 等相类似的句子

一、there be 结构的形式和用法英语表示某时某处有(指存在、不是指占有)某人某物时就采用“there + be(be 随后面的主语单复数和时态而变)+ 主语 + 状语”这种句型。在疑问句中将 there 退居第二位即可

There are many multimedia computers in our company. 我们公司有许多台多媒体计算机。

There were no star-rated hotels in our city before 1950. 1950 年前我市没有星级饭店。

There is no room for doubt here. 这里无怀疑余地。

Will there be a boxing exhibition tomorrow? 明天有拳击表演吗?(本句为疑问句,there 和 will 颠倒即行。)

Where there is heat, there is molecular motion. 有热就有分子运动。(本句内地点状语已扩展为地点状语从句,但译文未按原文结构翻译。)

There was a long, long time when there were no living things on the earth. 有一段很长很长的时期,地球上没有生物。(When 引出定语从句修饰前面的 along, long time. )

二、几点注意

Ⅰ. 句中 there 没有“那里”这个意思。需要表达“那里”这个意思时,句末还得再加一个 there。例如:There is a teahouse there. 那儿有一个茶馆。

II. 句中状语位置可前可后,也可一前一后,在一定上下文情况下甚至状语也可不用。

There are different elements in nature. 自然界里有各种不同的元素。(状语在后)

Before 1949 there was no modern national defence in China. 1949 年以前中国没有现代化的国防。

A magnetic field is a space in which there are magnetic lines. 磁场乃是有磁力线(通过)的空间。(状语在前)

There are not any perfect conductors. 没有绝对完善的导体。(没有状语出现)

There is not a moment to be lost. 分秒必争。(原意为:分秒都不要损失。)

注:"there be" 结构的否定式可以用否定词 no 表示(见上面第 2 句),也可用 not any 或 not a 表示(分别见第 4,5 句)。not any 后常跟有复数名词,no 后单、复数名词均可。其中以 not a 所表示的否定语气较强。

III. there 后面除了用 is, are, was 和 were 以外,还可用包含 be 的各种复合谓语的形式,其中包括各种时态以及使用各种情态动词。但这时 there 和后面的 be 的各种相应的形式始终作“存在”、“有”解。

There have been many great changes in China since 1978. 1978 年以来中国发生了许多巨大的变化。

There must be a lot of fuel in the tank. 油箱里一定有许多燃料。

He said that there would be an important report after breakfast。他说早饭后有一个重要报告。(句中 would be 为过去将来时。)

Without computers, fuel and steel, there would be no modern industry. 没有电脑、燃料和钢,就不会有现代化的工业。(would be 为虚拟语气。)

There may still be a little water in the bottle. 瓶内可能还有一点水。

She said there was going to be a meeting after class. 她说下课后将有一个会要开。

There ought to be (或 There should be) a great demand for these goods. 对这些货物应该有很大的需要。

Is there going to be an experiment tomorrow morning? 明天上午有实验吗?

How many classrooms can there be in this teaching building?这个教学楼内能有多少个教室呢?

If there is to be reform, there must be a correct policy. 要改革,就必须有正确的政策。

There is sure (或 certain) to be many difficulties for us to overcome. 一定会有许多困难要我们去克服。

There are likely to be more difficulties than you thought. 很可能碰到的困难会比你原先想的多。

为了醒目起见,现把常用的“there + 助动词或情态动词 + be 的相应形式”列成下表:

There will (或would) be… 将有…

There can (或could) be… 能有…

There must be… 一定有…

There may (或 might) be… 可能有…

There must have been… 当时一定有了…(表示对过去事情的主观判断)

There may have been… 当时可能有了…(表示对过去事情的主观判断)

There should be… 应该有…

There have (或 has, had) been… 已经有…

There is (或 was) going to be… (当时)将要有…

There is (或 was) to be… (当时)要有…

There ought to be… 应该有…

There is certain (或 sure, bound) to be… 肯定(或一定)有…

There is (或 was) likely (或 unlikely) to be… (当时)可能(或不可能)有…

Ⅳ. 在“there be + 主语”结构有时还可换用“there is (或 are, was, were 等) + said (或 heard, found, known, reported, supposed 等) + to be + 主语”,使 there be 结构增添新的色彩。例如:

There is (或 was) said to be a banana tree near a church. 据说(或那时据说)在教堂附近有一棵香蕉树。

There is reported (或 was found) to be an ancient well near a church. 据报道(或据当时发现)在教堂附近有一口古井。

Ⅴ. 当有几个并列成分作主语时,动词也可以只与最靠近的一个主语在人称和数方面协调一致。例如:

There is a worker and some students at the construction site. 建设工地上有一个工人和几个学生。(用 are 当然也可以。)

三、注意“there is no + 动名词”表示“不可能……”之意

There is no accounting for his conduct. 无法解释他的行为。

There is no telling what will happen. 未来的事无可奉告。

四、注意 there be 结构的非谓语形式的表示方法和用法

I do not want there to be any mistake in the homework. 我不希望在课外作业里有任何错误。(斜体字部分是 there be 结构的不定式短语表示形式,作动词 want 的宾语。)

Far from there being too many, there are only just enough English magazines in our reading-room. 我们阅览室内的英语杂志决不是多了,而只是刚够而已。(斜体字部分为 "there be" 结构的动名词短语的形式,作介词 from 的宾语。)

There being no car, I had to stay at home. 因为没有汽车,我就不得不呆在家里。(这里 There being… 为独立分词结构。)

五、与 there be 类似的结构在科技文章中有时我们还能见到 “there + seem (或 appear, happen, used to be, exist, remain, stand, live, lie, occur 等不及物动词)+ 主语”的句型结构。现举例如下:

There seems (或 appears) to be no doubt about this problem. 看来对此问题没有怀疑了。

There exist many sources of energy both potential and kinetic. 存在着许多位能和动能的能源。

There do exist complex computations in science and engineering. 在科学、工程上确实存在着复杂的计算。

There remains one more test to be carried out before putting (或 bringing) the robot into operation. 这台机器人(投入)运转前还剩下一个试验要进行。(未按原文结构翻译)

According to the periodic table, there seem to be still some elements undiscovered. 根据周期表,似乎还有一些元素未发现。

There stands a chemical plant by the river. 那条河边有一个化工厂。

There doesn't seem to be too much hope of his being still alive. 他仍然活在世上的希望似乎不太大。

There used to be very much rain there. 过去那儿一向(有很)多雨。(一般用“主语 + used + 不定式”表示过去经常性动作。这里前面加 there, 而 used 后加 to be,就变为 "there be" 结构的过去经常发生的”有”。)

There lies a wide river near our city. 我市附近有一条宽阔的河流。

六、若要表示事物或人物的有无,尤其当主语部分文字较长时,为了引起对方对句中主语的注意,常常先在句首加一个 there 充数,将真正的主语移到句末利用这种观点可解释以上所有的 "there be" 结构及其类似的结构中主语位于谓语之后的理由,也可用来解释下列一些句子。

There came a time when he did get at the meaning of the word. 后来他确实懂得了这个词的意思。(when 引出定语从句。)

There was seen a very wonderful sight people had never heard of. 人们看到了一个从未听说过的十分奇妙的景象。

Once there lived a great scientist whose name was Archimedes. 从前有个大科学家,他的名字叫做阿基米德。(whose 后引出定语从句。)

There goes Mr.White, who has been in the hospital for months. 怀特先生要走了。他在医院呆了好多个月了。

There suddenly rushed into the cinema a group of students from the elementary school. 突然从小学来了一群学生冲入电影院。

There has been developed wonderful solar stove for cooking. 已研制出一种用来烹煮食物的奇妙的太阳炉灶。

七、注意 there be 结构作定语从句时,省略作从句主语的关系代词;同时注意在以 there be 开头的句子中,主语的定语从句有时省略关联词

He has made a list of all the papers there are on this subject. 他将所有关于这个题目的论文列了一个单子。(there are… 为定语从句,省略了主语 which。)

There is a officer downstairs wants to speak to you. 楼下有一位军官想和你说话。(定语从句的 wants 前省略的关系代词,正是修饰主句的主语 officer 的。)

There is possibility we’ll go, it all depends on the weather. 我们可能去,但这完全要可能天气而定。(修饰 there be 结构中主语的定语从句,省略了关联词。)

八、there be 结构的其它常用搭配

There is no reason (或 sense) in doing such a thing. 没有理由做这样的事。

There is no point in speaking out here. 没有必要在这里大声讲话。(不能用 ※There is no point to speak… 代替。)

There is no need to thunder out at the meeting. 没有必要在会上大声疾呼。(不能用 ※… no need in thundering… 代替。)

There is no use (in) talking about this plan. 议论这项计划没有用处。(no use 后不能用不定式。)

Though 和 Although 的用法和注意点

一、连词 though 和 although 作“虽然”讲,引出让步状语从句

Although (或 Though) he is only eighteen years old, he has learned how to make deals. 虽然他才 18 岁,但他已学会如何做生意。

Though (或 Although) she went to the budget-store, she didn't buy anything. 尽管她去廉价商店了,但她什么都没有买。

The beeper, though it be small, is of great use in reality. 虽然寻呼机很小,但实际上大有用处。

注:翻译成汉语时,主句要加汉语“但(是)”或“还是”。英语却不能用 but,但可以用 still 或 yet。例如:

1)Although this matter sounds strange, yet it is true. 此事听起来虽然奇怪,但却是事实。

2)I was still calm although I was afraid. 虽然害怕,当时我还是镇静的。

二、注意 though 或 although 引出让步从句时可省略与主句相同的主语及其相应的 be 的形式

Though (或 Although) in a hurry, he stopped to answer my question. 尽管他匆忙急走,还是停了下来回答我的提问。

John, though one of the best students in our class, is not sure to get good marks in his examinations. 约翰虽是我班最好学生之一,但无把握在各科考试中取得良好成绩。

三、注意 though(不包括 although)引出的让步从句有时有词序颠倒的情况

Close though these friends are, they often argue at the meeting. 尽管这些朋友很知己,但在会上还是常争论。

Bravely though the basketball players fought, they had no chance of winning. 虽然这些篮球队员拼搏打球,但那时仍无望获胜。

四、though 还可作并列连词用,作”可是”讲,位于主句后面,并且其前面还有逗号

Hydrogen has its weight, though it is the lightest of all chemical elements. 氢有其重量,但它在所有化学元素中最轻。

五、as though (或 as if) 作“好像…似的”和 even though(或 even if)作“尽管、即使”讲时用法举例

He acted as though (或 as if) no accident had happened. 他表现得似乎什么事故都没有发生过。

She put up her right hand as though (或as if) to ask her teacher a question. 当时她举起右手,好像要向她的老师提一个问题。

She threw on her coat as though (或 as if) to go off at once. 她迅速穿上外衣,好像要马上离开。

Finally she went to Shanghai, even though (或 even if) I told her not to. 她去上海了,尽管我告诉她别走。

I’ll overcome all the difficulties, even though it (should) cost me my life. 我要克服一切困难,即使要献出我的生命.

注:As though (或 as if) 引出的从句常用虚拟语气。但在 look, seem 等动词引出的这种从句内,也可用陈述语气。

六、副词 though 作“可是”讲,常用于句末,但 although 无此用法

The second reason is the most important one, though. 可是第二个理由是最重要的。

It’s a hard task, I enjoy it though. 这是件艰难的任务,可是我乐意干。

Through 及其搭配的动词短语用法和判断

through 既是介词,又是副词。这两种用法紧密相关,在一定上下文中常可看到介词 through 后面省略了它的介词宾语,于是 through 就成了副词。因此本文基本上就将这两者放在一起讨论,让读者了解其演变过程。

一、介词 through 在空间上作“从…通过”或“穿过…”讲,一般限于后面的介词宾语在其它的场合下可以和 in 相搭配为前提,副词 through 可理解为省略了有关介词宾语的结果。

例如:push through the crowds to the door. (他)穿过人群,来到门口。其中 the crowds 在其它句子中可与介词 in 相搭配使用,即可以用 in the crowds,却不能用 across 或 on 来跟 the crowds 单独搭配使用。若 through 不用于空间,而用于时间、经历、原因,则不受此限制。

又如:burst through… 冲破(云层等);

The clouds rolled away and the sun burst through. 云层滚滚游动,阳光冲破云层[through 为副词];

carry (或 get, take) this table through the door way 搬这张桌子出门口[如果上下文指出这个门,则 through 后面的名词完全可省略,这时 through 变为副词。];

come in through…(阳光等)通过(窗户等)进入;

come through(雨水等)穿过(屋顶即 the roof)漏过来;

come through(信息等)传来,(雨水等)穿漏过来;

come through on the phone from Beijing(她)从北京打来电话;

cut through…(某铁路等)穿过(某省等);

drop through = fall through(某人)跌落下去,(计划等)落空[注意本短语中 through 大多为副词];

get sb. through… 让某人通过(考试等);

get sb. through 让某人通过[注:结合上下文去理解“通过考试或复试等”];

I tried to phone him about it, but couldn't get through. 我力争打电话告诉他这件事,但没有打通(电话)。go (或 pass) through…(学生等)通过(考试),(法律等)通过(国会)获得批准;

put… through… 使(某人)通过(考试),使(条约等)通过(国会)获得批准[注意在一定上下文中 through 后的名词 the exam(考试),the parliament(国会)还可省略,这时 through 就作副词用];

get through to…(消息等)传到(某人),让(某人)听懂或理解,打通电话给(某人),打通电话到(东京等);

be through to… 某人(电话)已接通到(东京等);

get sb. in through the front door 让某人从正门进入;

go through…(线等)穿过(孔眼即 the hole),(大桌子等难于)通过(狭小的门等),(法律、议案等)通过(国会)获得批准[注意在一定上下文中还可省略 through 后面的有关名词。这时 through 作副词用];

make off through…(某人)穿过(树林)跑掉;

pass through… 通过或穿过(森林),经历(艰苦时期);

We are not staying in the town, but just passing through. 我们并不逗留在城里,而只是路过而已。push through the crowds 从人群中挤过去;

push… through… 把(胳膊)伸进去并通过(某孔),推动(某议案)通过(国会)获得批准,推动(某人)通过(考试);

put (或 switch) a call (或 sb.) through to… 把电话(或把某人电话)接通到(东京、某人等)[这里 through 为副词,也可置于 put 或 switch 之后];

run through…(子弹)穿过(腿等),(水等)通过(管道)流动,(消息等)传遍(整个村庄即 the village),(一种想法即 a thought)在(某人头脑即 sb’s mind)中闪现而过;

run… through… 使(水等)流经(管道),用(刀)捅入(某人身体等)[当用 run one’s fingers through one’s hair nervously 表示时’则应理解为“紧张地用手指搔头皮”];

let the dirty run through 让脏东西流出去;

rush through… 迅速穿过(村庄);

rush… through congress 使(议案、条约等)很快通过代表大会批准;

slip through(机会等)错过,(坏人等)溜跑过去;

be voted through(某提案等)经投票通过等。

注:介词 through 有时用于转义,常含“通过某人或某媒介、通过某种行为”之意,以表示行为方式状语。例如:get the book through the library 通过图书馆借到书;

hear sth. only through sb. 只有通过某人才听到某事;

participate in on-line communication through internet(他们)通过因特网参加网上交往;

learn English through practice 通过实践学习英语;

look through a telescope 用望远镜看;

make great achievements through one’s hard work 通过努力工作取得很大成就;

see… through… 通过(窗户)看见(某人、某物),透过(云层)看到(月亮)等。

二、through 表示“从头到尾把…看完、审阅、翻阅、检查、看穿”之意时有关动词短语用法举例

check these proofs through 校阅完这些校样;

go through… 翻阅(报纸即 the newspapers),做完(练习),审改(全部建议),办完(一切手续等),上完(大学),翻看(抽屉、口袋),参观(车间即 the workshop);

go through four editions(该书)出版四次;

go through(建议、论案等)获得通过;

leaf(或 glance)through… 迅速翻阅(书等);

look through… 翻阅或查看(书、论文、报告等), 把(书、论文、报告等)读或看一遍,看穿(阴谋即 the trick);

look… through 仔细考查(建议),仔细阅读(规定即 the rules);

look straight through sb. and walk on 故意不理某人(或视而不见某人)并继续走下去[在一定上下文中也可写成 look me straight through and walk on];

read… through = read through… 审阅(书稿等),把(名单即 the list)从头到尾读一遍;

run through… 匆忙地把(信、报告等)看一遍,将(乐曲、台词等)练一遍,把(整个剧)彩排一次,把(讲演即 the lecture)过一遍;

run… through 把(录像带即 the video tape)放一遍;

see through… 看穿(某人或他的谎言即 his lie);

skim through… 浏览或粗略地将(书、报等)看一遍;

hurry through… 匆匆地翻阅(几本书)等

三、through 与有关动词搭配,表示“阅完、花完、完成”之意。这里 through 体现“从头到尾”,基本上体现上述短语中的“完”字含义

carry… through 完成(某课题、任务等);

follow… through 把(事情等)进行到底;

follow through… 完全遵照(协议、条款等)[本短语中 through 仍为副词];

get(或 go)through… 花完(这些钱),用完(信封等)[介词];

get(或 go) through with… 把(计划、工作、任务、交易等)进行到底;

put… through(厂长等)完成或办完(这笔交易等);

run through so much money 用完那么多钱[介词];

rush through… 匆忙做完(某事、合同等)[介词];

see sb. through (college, the lawsuit, the struggle 等)帮助某人上完(大学),打完(官司),把(斗争)坚持到底;

see sb. through… 帮助某人度过(困难)或完成(某艰巨任务等)[这里后面部分的文字(指“度过”、“完成”等)应结合上下文来选择译文];

see sb. through another week(这笔钱等)帮助某人再维持一周;

see sth. through 把(工作、任务、斗争等)进行到底,把(电影、戏剧等)看完;

be through with…(某人)做完(工作等),看完(书、报等),写完(信件等);

be through(某工作等)完成,(某人)通过考试等,(某人)电话接通等

注:注意上下文:through 有时指“关系结束即不再来往”,有时指“本身某一职务的结束”。例如:Do what you like. We are through. 你愿做什么就做什么,我们的关系到此为止。He was through with a football player. (那时)他挂靴不踢足球了。

四、介词 through 与有关动词搭配用于转义,表示一种经历。

例如:“度过(艰难历程)、克服(困难等)、经历(几个阶段)”。副词 through 一般可理解为介词 through 后面省略了有关名词的结果 have been through…(某人)经历了(一场重病、一段艰难时期),(某新产信一信等在生产线上)经历了(十个阶段等);

come through… 经历(世界大战即 the world war);

He was lucky to come through. 他很幸运地走过了这段历程[句中 through 可结合上下文理解为“经受了战争等各种磨难和危险并活了下来”。] bring sb. through… 使某人度过(战争);

bring… through…(医生)使(病人)脱离(危险);

get through the difficult times(某人)度过艰难的年代;

live through… 经历(战争或严冬等)而活过来[本短语中 through 一般作介词用];

pass through… 经历(一段困难时期等)[还可作“完成或学完(三门课等),上完(四年大学等)”讲];

pull through… 度过(困难、危机、考试),摆脱(疾病等);

pull (或 bring)(vt., vi.) through a serious illness(医生)使某人从重病中恢复健康[指“带着某人度过即摆脱重病”],(病人)从重病中康复过来;

Good nursing will pull the patient through. 护理好就可使病人康复过来。(句末 through 为副词);

win through(某人或某试验等)最后获得成功[这里 through 后可理解为省略 troubles, difficulties 之类的词,体现“成功来之不易”的色彩]等

五、through 后接有关名词表示“通过一段时间”或“一直到某日期”

be (或 stay) here through May(他)整个五月份将呆在这里[用将来一般时];

be open from Monday through Friday(商店等)开门营业从星期一到星期五(包括星期五在内);

get through those days 度过那些日子;

work through the night 通宵工作等

六、介词 through 接有关名词表示原因,它和动词的搭配很广

fall ill through eating too much(他)由于吃得太多而病倒;

get the chance through being a manager(某人)由于担任经理而获得这个机会;

happen through his carelessness(事故等)的发生起因于他的粗枝大叶;

make mistakes through one’s inexperience(某人)由于没有经验而犯错误等

Throughout 的搭配用法

一、介词 throughout 作“遍及或贯穿(某国家、地区、城镇等)”时的用法举例

The news spread throughout the city. 这消息传遍全市。

I found this idea throughout his book. 我发现这种想法贯穿他的全书。

Throughout the length and breadth of the land there are a lot of meadows covered with grass. 遍及这块土地各处有许多块草地。

The thief left some traces throughout (或 allover, all throughout) the storeroom. 小偷在整个库房内留下一些痕迹。

We always support the peoples throughout the world. 我们总是支持世界各国人民。(与上句不同,这里作后置定语。还可用 all over the world, all throughout the world 或 around the world 代替。)

注:介词 throughout 后的名词前面不能用 whole 或 entire,因为该介词本身包含“整个”、“全部”的意思。

二、介词 throughout 作“遍及或贯穿整个或一段时期”讲时的用法举例

I trained throughout the night. 雨下了整整一夜。

He has not yet heard of cloning technology throughout his life. 他这一辈子还尚未听说过克隆技术。

Food was scarce throughout the war. 整个战争期间食物短缺。

We often visited her throughout her illness. 在她整个患病期间我们常去看望她。

Ms. Liao was throughout her life a teacher. 廖女士当了一辈子教师。

注:throughout 用于表示“整个…时间”有时就可用 over 或 during 代替。例如:

We were in the country to recruit throughout (或 over, during) the vacation. 整个假期我们在乡间休养。

三、副词 throughout 表示“整个地、完全地”或“从头到尾,始终或一直”时的用法汇总

Jenny is an excellent senior engineer throughout and is going to visit to China next week. 詹妮完全是一位优秀的高级工程师,并准备于下周访问中国。

In this respect, the telephone and the pager differ throughout. 在这方面电话和寻呼机完全不同。

Her house needs painting throughout. 她的房子需要全部漆一遍。

Linda knows the secret throughout. 琳达对这个秘密了解透彻。(还可用 all through 代替。)

We follow a correct policy throughout. 我们始终遵循一条正确的政策。

Time (Times) 的用法和注意点

一、作“倍数”讲,其一般搭配格式和用法如下(详见第 150 节)

Ⅰ. “基数词(3 以上)或 many, a few 等词 + times,”作状语:

A is three times as great as B. A 是 B 的三倍。(或:A 比 B 大两倍。)

Measuring anything means comparing it with some standard to see how many times as big it is. 测量任何东西就是把它同某个标准进行比较,看看它是(这个标准的)多少倍。

This computer operates three times as fast as the other one。这台计算机运算速度比另一台快两倍。(或译“…运算速度是另一台的三倍。”)

As against last year, our coal output has increased by three times. 与去年相比,我们的煤产量增加了三倍。(若在句中去掉介词 by,则变为“增加了两倍”。)

This room is six times larger than that one. 这间房间比那间大六倍。(不少美国人理解为“…大五倍”。注意下句括号内说明。)

An oxygen atom is 16 times heavier than a hydrogen atom. 氧原子重量是氢原子的 16 倍。(在“倍数+比较级 + than…”结构中,这个倍数可能是净增加,更可能是毛增加。英语中这种倍数表示法尚未完全统一,故应根据上下文和科学道理进行判断。一般用上述第 3 句表示法为宜。)

II. 把“基数词(3 以上)或 many, a few 等词 + times”构成一个词组,并作为一个定语来修饰后面的名词或代词 that, 甚至修饰 what 引出的名词从句。也可理解为 …times (…) = (…) multiplied by,即作“…被乘以…”讲。

Three times four is twelve. 三乘四等于十二。(直译为:三倍的四为十二。)

The volume of the sun is about 1 300 000 times the volume (或用 that 代替 the volume) of the earth. 太阳体积约为地球体积的 1 300 000 倍。

The price of fresh fruit in winter is twice what it was in autumn. 冬天的新鲜水果价格要比它秋天的价格贵一倍。(注意 what 从句常可顶一个名词来用。)

The force equals mass times acceleration. 力等于质量乘加速度。(从 F=ma 式中也可看出,F 等于 m 倍的 a,原文即是这个意思。但也可理解为… equals acceleration multiplied by mass 即“…等于加速度被乘以质量”。)

The time cycle for the complete operation is only a few seconds. 整个操作的时间周期仅仅几秒钟。

二、作“次数”讲,其一般搭配格式如下

Ⅰ. “基数词等 + times + 单位时间范围等”(但用 once, twice 表示一次、两次)。

We have English classes three times a week. 我们每周上三次英语课。

They measure gas pressure five times per hour. 他们每小时测量五次气体压强。

Take two tablets once (或 twice) a day. 每日服一次(或两次),每次服两片。

I. “序数词等 + time(单数)”表示“第几次”:

Let us try a second time. 让我们做第二次尝试。

When they read the book for the second time, they detected a number of mistakes. 当他们第二次读这本书时,发现了不少错误。

三、作“时间”讲,一般用 time。注意 some time, sometime, sometimes 用法

a. We have no time to do it. 我们没有时间做这件事。

b. We had a good time in Shanghai. 我们在上海度过了很好的时光。

The time for the production of iron was cut down by half. 产铁时间缩短了一半.

The workers turn on the switches at the appointed time. 工人们在规定的时间合闸。

It is (high) time to develop our high technology industry. 该发展我们的高科技产业了。(=It is time (that) we developed (或 should develop) our high technology industry. 这里用关系副词 that 引出定语从句,修饰名词 time。that 和 should 还可省略。developed 和 should develop 是虚拟语气的形式。)

It takes time to carry out the test. 进行这个试验需要时间。(不定式短语为真正主语,而 it 为形式主语。)

At that time they were measuring the temperature of water. 那时他们正在测量水温。(at that time 一般用于过去时和将来时。)

a. We shall visit the watch factory sometime in May. 在五月份我们找个时间参观手表厂。

b. She will stay here for some time. 她将在这里逗留一些时间。

c. They will come to see you some time or other. 他们迟早会来看你的。

d. It is sometimes cold and sometimes (或 another times) warm。天气时冷时暖。

c. We hope you will start out for work sometime soon. 我们希望你早点上班。

At the same time that you are teaching English you are improving your English. 你在教英语的同时,也就在提高你自己的英语水平。(句中关系副词 that 引出修饰 time 的定语从句。)

四、作“时期”、“时代”、“日子”讲,一般用 times(复数)

Whether matter can be split up is known to have interested many people from ancient times. 物质是否能够分割,据了解从古代起就有许多人注意到了。(直译是:人们知道,物质是否能够分割,远从古代起早巳使许多人感兴趣了。)

We must move with the computer times. 我们必须跟上计算机时代。

Times are good. 我们的日子很好过。

We know of wood having been used as structural material in prehistoric times. 我们知道,木材在史前时期就已经被用作建筑材料了。(of 后接复合宾语,其中 as 又引出相对的主语补语。)

五、once 作“一次”讲,而 at a time 也作“一次”讲和 at one time 作“一度”讲,只限用于下列类似场合

She goes to our office once a week. 她每周去办公室一次。

Enter two at a time. 每次进来两个人。

He was at one time a salesman. 他一度当过售货员。

At one time scientists thought that there could be nothing smaller than atoms. 科学家曾一度认为没有比原子再小的东西了。

六、注意用 by the time(到……时),each time, every time(后两者都作“每当……时”讲),at the time(在……时)等词组来引导时间状语从句

The truck will have arrived by the time (that) you have all the things packed up. 等你们把所有这些东西包装完毕时,卡车已经抵达。

The piston completes a stroke each time (that) it changes direction of motion. 每当活塞改变一次运动方向,它就完成了一个冲程。

A low, threatening sound was suddenly heard at the time the man was doing some mending. 正当这个男子在修理东西时突然听到一种低沉的令人恐惧的声音。

注:by the time 和 each time 等后面的 that 其实是关系副词,引出定语从句修饰 time。考虑到 by the time 和 each time 等在句中作时间状语,后面 that 常省略,就将它们理解为直接引出时间状语从句。见下列 4~8。

You should see that each time there is a magnetic effect there is a movement of electrons. 你应该清楚地知道,每当发生磁效应的时候,就有电子运动。

The second time we met, he replied to a lot of questions. 我们第二次会面时,他回答了许多问题。

Next time I see you, I will give you an English book. 下次见到你时,我将给你一本英语书。

He grows younger and younger every time I see him. 我每次见到他,他显得越来越年轻了。

I will lend you the book any time you like. 我将把这本书借给你,随便什么时候都可以。

七、复数 times 一般用来指时期,时代,但注意单数 time(作“时间”讲)具体化时,也可用复数 times 表示多种不同的具体时间

We do the job at odd times. 我们用零星时间作这个活。(这里零星时间指一刻钟、半个钟头等具体的零星时间。)

The three sections of the book were written at different times. 这本书的三个部分是在不同的时间写的。(按汉语习惯,不如译为“……在不同的时期写的”。)

注:time 的一些常用的固定词组:

at that time 那时;at the same time 同时;at times 时常,有时;for the time being 暂时;in no time 立刻;in time 及时;on time 按时,准时;once upon a time 从前等。

To 的搭配用法及其分类理解

一、to 表示到、朝向或往(某地、某境地等)时的动词短语举例

add (v.) to… 将(5)加到(9)上去,(山、河)增添(该城市的美丽即 the city’s beauty);

apply… to… 把(理论)应用到(实践即 practice);

ask sb. to… 请某人到(办公室即 the office);

be to the point(你的问题)问到点子上,(他的谈话)中肯切题;

come to…(他)来到(教室),(真相即 the truth)我明白了[用过去一般时];

lead (v.) to…(这条路)通往(学校),(她)领(你)到(学校)去;

limit… to… 限制(她的支出即 her expenses)到(1500元);

be far to…(学校)到(医院)很远;

get (v.) to…(他)到达(北京),(我们)谈到(要点即 the point),送(小孩)到(学校);

go to… 去到(信息中心即 the information center),(这条铁路)通往(上海),(我们)去听(报告即 the report);

have been to…(我)去过(天津);

lie(或 be, be located)to the east of…(天津)位于(北京)以东;

open to…(该窗户)朝向(东方或大海)[也可用 look 代 open],(这些地方)将向(公众即 the public)开放[谓语用 will be opened];

stand to…(他)站到(你)一边,忠于(职守即 the duty);

take (v.) to… 将(某人)带往(医院等),(他)向(公路即 the highway 或小船即 the boat)跑去,(我)开始(学英语即 learning English)[由“奔往…”引申过来],(她)生病卧床[后接 her bed];

turn to the right 向右转等

二、介词 to 表示“达到某数字、金额、温度等”时的动词短语举例

amount (或 come) to…(收入即 the income)达到(3000 元);

be close to…(支出即 the expenses)接近于(2800元);

come up to…(温度)高达(6000度);

fall (或 drop) to…(温度)降到(2 度);

increase (v.) to… 将(收入)增加到(3500 元),(世界人口即 the world population)已增加到(60 亿人以上即 over six billion people)[用现在完成时];

count up to…(这孩子)能数到(20);

rise to…(温度)升到(100℃)等

三、介词 to 和有关名词(如 to a degree, to some extent 等)连用表示“达到某种程度”或 to 与有关动词搭配表示“冷却到加热到、打碎到、摔成、恢复到…”时的用法举例

Ⅰ. to a greater or less degree 或多或少地;

to a certain extent 在某种程度上;

operate to the limit(洗衣机即 the washing machine)运转到达最大限度;

be playing to one’s heart’s content(这小孩)正在尽情地玩耍;

study to the best of one’s ability(她)竭尽全力学习等

II. bring (或 move) sb. to tears 使某人感动落泪;

cool (或 heat) sth. to… 将(某物)冷却(或加热)到(20℃);

break (v.) to pieces(使)(玻璃杯)打成碎片;

fall to bits (或 pieces)(杯子)摔成碎块;

go to pieces(或 bits)(他)一蹶不振,(那个政府)崩溃;

drink to death(他)酗酒而死;

reduce to… 将某物破碎成(粉末即 powders),将某物还原为(其它的化合物即 the other compounds);

take… to pieces (或 bits) 将(寻呼机即 the beeper)拆开;

tear… to pieces 将(信)撕碎;

return to…(某人)恢复到(旧的生活方式即 the old way of living);

be restored to…(他)被恢复到(健康状态即 health)等

注:下列短语中的 to… 也可归入本类。

be wet to the skin(他)全身湿透[由“湿到皮肤”引申过来];

bring the traffic to a complete stop(那)使交通完全停顿;

put… to… 使(计算机)达到(很好的使用即 good use),(这药)使(她)(安眠即 sleep),使(某人)受到(困惑即 trouble);

be put to death(他)被处决;

defend… to… 保卫(城市)到(最后一滴血即 the last drop of one’s blood);

be faithful to the end(她)忠实到底等

四、介词 to 作“到”讲,用于表示时间、年龄、距离等短语中

ten minutes to…(四点)差十分[或到四点还有十分];

It’s two kilometers to the school. 到学校还有两公里。We made great achievements during the period of ten to twenty years. 我们在 10 到 20 年这段时期取得了伟大成就。She is 25 to 30. 她的年龄 25 到 30 岁。To this day the students have all arrived here. 到今天为止学生全都抵达这里。learn English from eight to ten(我)从八点到十点学英语;

change the date to next Friday 将日期改到下星期五;

postpone the game to (或 till) tomorrow 将比赛推迟到明天;

labour from morning to (或 till) night 从早劳动到晚上;

Up to now he hasn’t set out yet. 到目前为止他尚未出发。

五、介词 to 和有关动词搭配时作“对…”或“向…”讲举例

appeal to… 向(法院即 the court)上诉,诉者(法律即 the law 或武力即 force);

apply to…(我)向某人申请,(这个方法即 this method)适用于(该生产即 the production);

do harm to…(抽烟)对(我们)有害处;

express one’s thanks to sb. (我)向某人表示感谢;

Happy birthday to you. 祝你生日快乐。introduce… to… 将(这个建议)向你们推荐,将(她)介绍给(你们);

mention sth. to sb. 向某人提起某事;

report… to sb. 向某人报告(某事),向某人告发(那个人);

report oneself to the office 向办公室报到;

return… to… 向(某人)归还(书、钱等);

say(或 speak)to sb. 对某人说(或讲);

talk to sb. 对某人讲话;

turn to sb. for help 向某人求援等

注:在“有关动词+间接宾语+直接宾语”中不少间接宾语[但不是全部]通过前面加 to 就可挪到直接宾语后面。例如:He gave me a mobile phone = He gave a mobile phone to me. 他给了我一个移动电话.

六、介词 to 与有关动词连用表示相对位置、反应、反响、合拍等

(他们)背对背站立;

answer (或 reply) to her email 回复她的电子邮件;

react(他们)背对背站立;

answer (或 reply) her email 回复她的电子邮件;

react to…(皮肤即 the skin)对(太阳灯即 the sunlamp)有反应;

respond to…(学生)对(政府声明即 the government statement)作出响应;

say nothing to your idea(他)对你的想法没有说什么[也是一种反应];

dance to the music 合着音乐拍子跳舞;

sing to my guitar(她)在我的吉他伴奏下演唱等

七、“介词 to + 有关名词或代词”作“对…来说”用法举例

Ⅰ. 上述 to 短语单独用于句首或用于 a victory, a support, a blow, a danger 等词后面。

To all of us, this is a great victory. 对我们全体来说,这是伟大的胜利。

It was an active support (或 help) to me. 当时这是对我的积极的支持(或帮助)。

It will be a danger (或 a blow) to that country. 这对那个国家将是一种危险(或打击)。

II. 上述 to 短语常用于 appear, seem, feel, sound 等动词后面。

It felt to him like a pen. (当时)它摸起来好像是一支钢笔。(本义:对他来说,当时摸起来像…。)

It appears(或 seems)to me that she will be successful. 在我看来,她会成功。

This suggestion sounds very fine to us. 这个建议在我们听起来似乎很好。

八、介词 to 和有关动词连用,具有“动词本意” + 汉语“于”的含意。例如“屈服于…、适应于…、习惯于…、归属于…、倾向于…”等

adapt (v.) to…(我们)习惯于(公制即 metric measurements),使(自己即 oneself)适应于(温度的变化即 changes of temperature);

adjust (v.) to…(她)习惯于和小孩相处[后接 the children],(他)使(自己的习惯即 his habits)适应于(他的妻子的习惯);

answer to…(质量即 the quality)适合(于)(我们的标准即 our standards);

apply… to… 将(规则即 the rules)用于(实践即 the practice);

belong to…(这本书)属于(他)的;

(这个问题)属于(讨论即 the discussion)范围;

happen to sb. (这事故即 the accident)发生在某人身上;

occur to sb.(或 sb.’s mind)某人想起了(一个好主意即 a good idea)[用过去一般时。主语为 a good idea. 英语本义是:一个好主意发生或出现于某人脑海中];

tend(或 incline)to…(她)趋向于(或倾向于)(这个观点即 this viewpoint);

be (或 get) used (或 accustomed) to…(她)习惯于(这个工作即 the work 或那样说话即 speaking like that)等

九、介词 to 和有关动词搭配表示“同意…、赞成…、听从…、承认…”等时的用法举例

answer to sb’s call 听从或服从某人的呼唤;

agree to… 同意(这个计划或合同即 the contract 等);

admit to… 承认(做某事 doing sth. 或偷钱即 stealing money 等)[后接动名词短语居多];

hear to doing sth. 同意或听从做某事;

listen to… 听从(老师等),听(报告即 the report 等);

incline(或 tend)to… 赞同(他的计划)[由“倾向于…”引申过来];

own to… 承认(做错即 having done wrong)等

十、介词 to 与有关动词、数词、形容词或名词、代词搭配,表示比较、比例、比分、参照等用法举例

compare… to… 将(社会即 the society)比作(舞台即 the stage),把(某人)比作(太阳);

Compared to (或 with) you, he is unlucky. 与你相比,那时他是不走运的。prefer… to… 宁愿要(水胜过)(冷饮即 a cooling drink);

be preferable to…(水)比(冷饮)更受青睐;

the ration of three to five 3 和 5 之比;

Ten to one she will be successful. 她十之八九会成功。A hundred to one we will overfulfill our task. 我们极大可能超额完成任务。They lost the game by two (goals) to five. 他们以 2 比 5 输掉这场比赛。This optical computer is second to none. 这台光计算机首屈一指。(由不会“屈居第二”引申过来。) Please draw your map to scale. 请参照比例画地图。He wants to refer to your notes. 他想参考一下你的笔记。

1)This type of computer is superior (或 inferior) to your home computer. 这种型式的计算机比你的家用计算机优越(或差)。

2)He is senior (或 junior) to you by two years. 他比你大(或小)两岁。

3)Jenny flied to in Austin prior (或 posterior) to Linda. 詹妮是先于(或晚于)琳达飞往奥斯汀的。

4)It was an event anterior to World War 2. 那是第二次世界大战之前的事。(后置定语)

十一、不少形容词和少数副词在其后面要求用 to 表示“对…”含义

be just (或 polite, nice, friendly, kind 等)to sb. (我们)对某人(公正、有礼貌、好、友好、和蔼亲切等);

be impolite(或 cruel, rude 等)to sb. (他)对某人不礼貌(或残忍、粗鲁无礼等);

be imperative(或 necessary, useful, helpful, open 等)to sb.(这)对某人是至关重要的(或必需的、有用的、有帮助的、开放的等);

run close to the ground(飞机)贴着地面奔驰;

sail close to the wind 抢风(或几乎逆风)航行;

Lisa is as beautiful near to as she was. 莉萨的风韵不减当年。He is new to this city. 他对这个城市很生疏。I am still strange to the work. 我对这项工作仍然生疏。All the results ran counter to our predictions. 所有的结果跟我们的预测相反。

十二、介词 to 的短语和有关动词搭配时表示目的、原因和结果的用法举例

come to…(他)前来(帮助即 his assistance 或支持你们即 your support);

drink to the happy future 为幸福的未来干杯;

work (或 save money) to (或 for) this end 为此目的而工作(或存钱);

lose one’s sight to the disease(他)因病失明[过去一般时];

We cannot think of these activities as our important work to the neglect of our scientific research. 我们不能把这些活动当作重要工作以致忽略科学研究。They have never one-sidely emphasized one to the denial of the other. 他们从未片面地强调一方面而导致否定另一方面。

十三、介词 to 表示前后两者的所属关系

a coat to sb.’s name 某人的外衣;

the key to the test 试题答案;

my key to the door 我的(开)门钥匙;

private secretary to the manager 经理的私人秘书;

a statue to the great poet 一个伟大诗人的塑像;

say a lot to your advantage(他)说了许多对你有利的话[用过去一般时]等

十四、副词 to 和有关动词搭配,表示“(门、窗)关闭、(船)抛锚、(某人)苏醒、(某人)大干、大吃、大打出手”等

The wind blew the door to. 风把门光上了。

All the windows were fast to. 所有的窗户当时都牢牢地关上了。

I left the door to. 我让门虚掩。

She pulled the skylight to. 她将天窗拉了一下关好。

I pushed the door to. 我把门推上关好。

She shut the box to. 她将箱子关上。

He set to and did something. 他大干起来并且有所行为。

They were hungry and at once set to. 他们很饿,便立即大吃起来。

The two boys soon set to and dealt heavy blows upon each other. 这两男孩很快争吵起来,并且相互大打出手。

come to(船等)停下来,(小孩)苏醒;

bring… to 使(小孩)苏醒,使(船等)停下等。

注:注意 to and fro 的用法。例如:run to and fro(他们)来回奔跑;

walk to and fro 来回走动;

swing to and fro 来回摆动等。

Together 的搭配用法及其分类理解

副词 together 的基本词义是“一起”,但和有关动词或其它短语连用时构成的短语就丰富多采。现分别叙述如下:

一、together 与有关动词等搭配时引申为“聚集、聚合、集合、收集、收拾、拼装”等用法举例

be together with… 跟(某人或某物)在一起;

call (或 gather)… together 将(学生)召集(或集合)在一起;

come together(我们)聚集祝贺(她的生日)[后加 for her birthday],(两根直线)相交在一个点上[后加 at a point];

fit… together 将(零件即 the parts)装置在一起;

knock the boards together and make a bookshelf 将木板拼凑在一起打成一个书架;

get (v.) together(使)相聚或见面,收集(一切材料即 all the materials);

lay… together 将(铅笔)有序地放在一起;

集中(我们的智慧即 our heads);

meet together 根据事实作出判断[由“二加二那样清楚地易于作出结论”引申过来];

add… together 将 (x) 和 (y) 加在一起;

stay together 聚集或呆在一起;

study (或 work, live) together 学习(或工作、住)在一起等

二、together 和有关动词搭配,表示“联合、团结、协调一致、重归于好”等时的用法举例

bing… together 使(他们)和解或重归于好;

come together(他俩)重归于好;

go together(衣服和帽子)协调一致,我们一起走了[过去一般时],(他俩)走在一起有二年了[用完成时,后加 for two years. 指婚前相恋二年];

hold (v.) together(共同的利益即 the common interests)使(我们)团结一致;

把(两根电线等)握在一起,将(某些材料)放在一起,(这些解释即 the explanations)站得住脚;

keep (v.) together(使)这些(运动员即 the players)配合一致,使(同类的书即 the same kind of books)存放在一起;

stay(或 remain)together 呆(或继续呆)在一起;

歌手们即 the singers)齐声唱歌;

pull together(我们)齐心协力一起划船,(他们)通力合作或团结一致;

stand together 站在一起,团结在一起;

be tied(或 bound)together by the common interests(他们)由共同的利益维系或联合在一起;

throw… together 匆忙地收拾(书、衣服等),迅速地配菜做出(一顿饭即 a meal);

be thrown together(这个棚屋即 the hut)是匆匆搭起来的[注意 throw 已转意表示行为方式,作“匆匆地、很快地”讲。又如:throw up a hut 匆匆盖起小屋,throw on (或 off) the coat 匆匆穿上(或脱下)外衣,throw oneself down 迅速趴下]等

三、注意 together 位于句首和有关动词连用时常有“共同努力、同心协力”含义

Together they carried the computer control console into the workshop. 他们共同把计算机控制台搬进车间。

Together we persuaded his friend into selling the house to you. (当时)我们共同努力劝他的朋友将房子卖给你。

Together the soldiers are pushing towards the next city. 战士们正同心协力地向下一个城市推进。

四、together 位于表示时间天数或小时数的后面常可理解为“一连…天、连续…小时”等含义

It rained for three hours together. 雨连续下了三小时。

We have waited for her for four days together. 我们已经等了她连续四天。

They discussed the plan for 50 minutes together. 他们对这个计划连续讨论了五十分钟。

五、together 的本义为“一起”,当和有关的具体动词搭配时有不少灵活的译法。例如结合上下文有时可译为“同时”、“相互或彼此”、“一致地或完整地”等

Why did all the troubles come together? 为什么所有这些困难同时来临?(或直译“一起到来”也可。)

They often ring the bells together. 他们常同时敲钟。

Those text books were compared together by the teachers. 那些教科书当时都由老师作了相互比较。

Please add all the incomes together. 请将所有的收入相加一起。

We stood together on the fifth five-year plan. 当时就第五个五年计划我们的立场一致。

The girl can't even put a single sentence together. 这女孩甚至还不能完整地造一个简单的句子。

六、注意 together with… 的用法和 along with… 很相似

Dr. Ouyang, together (或 along) with his wife, son and daughter, entered the banquet hall. 欧阳博士偕同夫人和儿女进入宴会厅。

Derek, together with (或 along with) the other classmates, is learning to operate a computer. 德立克和其他同学一起正在学习操作计算机。(若用 as well as 代替,则表示“…和其他同学一样,…”。)

Too 的多种用法和判别

一、too 作“也”讲,只用于肯定句中

We are carrying out this research, too. 我们也在进行这项研究。

They went to the shopping center, too. 他们也去了购物中心。

Our teachers, too, are going away. 我们的老师也准备离开。

注:若用于否定句,一般要用 either 代替 too:If it is not, he needn’t go there, either. 如果不是这样,他也不必去那里。(不可用 too 代 either。)

二、too 作“太”讲,用于形容词或副词前

There is too much sugar in the cup of milk. 这杯牛奶内糖太多了。

The meeting should not go on too long. 会议不要开得太长。

The problem is rather too hard, but it will be solved in not too long a time. 这个问题太难一点,但过不了太久便能解决。

三、当“too + 形容词或副词 + 动词不定式”时,后面动词不定式意义在翻译时一般要加上一个否定词

The question is too hard to understand. 问题太难,理解不了。

This book is too difficult for me to read. 这本书太难,我读不了。

We thought too highly of him to suppose that he would act like that. 我们对他评价很高,所以想不到他会那样办事。

He is too young to be qualified for such work. 他太年轻,没有资格做这样的工作。

There are too many pumps to name up here. 泵太多,不能在这里一一叫出名称。

注 1:如果后面动词不定式为否定,则译成汉语时变为肯定。例如:They are too wise not to solve this problem. 他们非常聪明,必能解决这个问题。

注 2:有时 too… 后面没有不定式,而用 for 加名词或代词,也表示有否定含义。例如:

1)This book is too difficult for me. 这本书我读太难了。

2)Hardened steel is too hard and too brittle for many tools. 硬化钢太硬和太脆,不宜于制作许多刀具。

有时否定词挪前,翻译时更须注意。见下面例 3。

3)We are never too old to learn. 我们一贯是活到老学到老。(句中 to learn 也可改用 for learning。)

4)The heavy components are too thick to pour at all. 重组分太稠,根本不能灌注。(at all 只用于否定式。这里由于前面出现 too thick 故使 to pour 包含否定意义,因而仍可用 at all。)

注 3:若 too 后的形容词为 ready(甘心的,易于…的),apt(容易的),easy(容易的),inclined(有倾向性的),willing(愿意的,乐意的),eager(热心的,渴望的)等时,则后面的不定式短语仍不被否定。例如:

She is too ready to talk. 她爱说话。

Old men are too apt to forget. 老年人往往健忘。

Such a speed will never be too easy to be kept constant. 这样一个速度将太不易于保持恒定了。

四、当“only 或 but + too + …… +动词不定式”时,后面的动词不定式在翻译时不必加否定词

We are only too pleased to work together with. 我们一起工作太高兴了。(直泽为:只有太高兴了。)

They are but too glad to do so. 他们非常喜欢这样做。

五、“cannot (或 can scarcely, can hardly)… too …”和“It is impossible(或difficult )+ 不定式 + too + 形容词或副词+…”结构应该理解为“无论怎样……也不会过分”和“无论怎样……也不可能过分”

We cannot be too careful in doing experiments. 我们做实验要尽可能小心。(原意为:我们做实验无论怎样小心也不过分。)

It cannot be too much emphasized that high-tech industries play a very important role in the national economy. 应尽量强调高科技产业在国民经济中起着很重要的作用。

a. Her contribution to modern agriculture can scarcely (或hardly) be overrated. 她对现代农业的贡献,无论如何估计也不会过高。(can scarcely 或 can hardly 是和 cannot 相当的,都属于否定句。overrated 中的前缀 over 包含有 too much之意,因 over -含有“过分”、“过头”之意。)

b. The importance of information technologies cannot be exaggerated. 信息技术极为重要。(本句直译则为:信息技术的重要性无论怎样夸大也不可能过分。动词 exaggerate 本身含有“言过其实”、“夸大”之意,也即含有“过分”、“过头”之意,故可认为包含 too much 含义。)

a. No man can have too many friends. 朋友越多越好。(注意谓语不是 cannot, 而是由 No… can 构成否定式,然后再与too… 连用。)

b. A student can never have too many books. 学生的书越多越好。(注意用 can never 代替 cannot 的做法。)

c. I couldn’t get home fast enough. 我恨不得马上回到家里。

It is difficult to criticize him too severely. 对他无论怎样严厉地批评也不过分。(句中 difficult 词意接近 impossible,故仍属本类句型使用范围。)

六、用 too 时数量或程度的增减情况。参阅第 150 节、ⅪV

Toward(s) 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Toward(s)… 基本上只作介词用,常用于口语中。美国人常用 toward。

一、介词 toward(s) 基本词意为“朝着或朝向…”

go toward(s)…向(某人)走去,朝(计算机中心即 the computer center)走去;look toward(s)… 朝(东方即 the east)望去,(这房子)面向(海洋即 the sea);make toward(s)…走向(中国),朝(他们)走去;face toward(s)…(窗户)面向(江河),make toward(s)(或 for)… 走向(北京),march toward(s)… 向(高科技即 high technologies)进军;run(或 walk)toward(s)… 向(学校或某人)跑去(或走去)等

注:注意 toward(s) 强调朝着某方向,而 to 则强调“到”,“达”(含“接触”之意)。在下列短语中不宜用 toward(s) 代替 to。现以 come 为例:come to the conclusion 得出结论,come (或 amount) to 3000 yuan (总数即 the total) 达到 3000 元;come to an end(雨)停止等

二、介词 toward(s) 跟有关词语连用,有时由“朝向…”引申为“对于(某人、某事”(讲,为此必须注意上下文)

be friendly (或 kindly) toward(s)…(他)对(你们)友好;feel a lot of gratitude toward(s)… 对(老师)深怀感激之情;be a great contribution toward(s) science and technology(这)是对科技的伟大贡献;have different attitudes toward(s) learning English(他们)对待学习英语有各种不同的态度;warm toward(s)…(他)对(某人)好感,(我们)对(这个项目即 the project)开始兴致勃勃地谈论等

三、介词 torward(s) 跟有关名词或动名词短语搭配时作“朝着某目标、为了某目标”讲的用法举例

make an effort toward(s) peace 为和平作出努力;save some money toward(s) buying a new car 为了买辆新车而积蓄些钱;take a series of measures toward(s) the four modernizations 为了四个现代化采取一系列措施;work hard toward(s) this end(他们)为此目的努力工作;go toward(s) a home computer for sb. (这笔钱)用于为某人购买一台家用计算机;go far (或 a long way) toward(s)…(这)大大地有助于(提高英语口语即 bringing up spoken English)等

四、介词 toward(s) 跟时辰、某日搭配时,就由“朝着…”引申为“将近…”或“快到…”讲

toward(s) six o’clock 将近六点时;toward(s) day break 天快亮时;toward(s) the end of next year 快到明年年底时;toward(s) the new year 快到新年时等

注:如果用 by, up to, up till 代替上述的 toward(s),则变为“到…时”。

五、介词 toward(s)… 作“接近某数量”或“靠近某地”讲时的用法

toward(s) 5 tons of coal 将近五吨煤;toward(s) one tenth of your population 接近你们人口的十分之一;a school somewhere up toward(s) the river 靠近河不远的一座学校等

"Used + 带 to 的不定式","be used + to + 名词" 和 "be used + 带 to 的不定式”用法差异

一、“used + 带 to 的不定式”表示过去习惯性动作或状态

She used to turn toward the window, where nothing faced her hut the open sea. 以往她常转向窗户,面向窗外仅有的茫茫大海。(过去习惯性动作)

Did Joe really use to be if your friend? 过去乔确实是你的朋友吗?(过去的状态。也可写成:Used Joe really to be…?)

Used they to live here? = Did they use to live here?他们过去一向住在这里吗?

He didn't use to go there. = He used not (或 He usedn't) to go there. 他以往一向不去那边。

He never used to swim in winter, did he?他过去冬天从不游泳,对吗?(过去习惯性动作。只是否定式的反意疑问句。)

注:不能说 ※He used to work here for ten years, 只能说:He worked here for 10 years. 他曾在这里工作了十年。

二、“used + 带 to 的不定式”和“would + 动词原形一般式”的用法异同两者都可表示过去的习惯性多次动作(见下例 1),但前者还可用来表示过去的状况,而后者 would 只能用来表示重复的动作。注意两者都不能用来表示做某事或某动作的次数。

Close to 40 years ago, when we both studied at the middle school. we used to (或 would) go swimming in rivers every summer. 将近 40 年以前,当我俩在中学读书时,每年夏天都去河里游泳。

a. There used to be a house at the corner of the street。过去这条街的拐角处有一所房子。(不能用 would be 代之。)

b. Used there to be a standing lamp in the corner of the room?以往在房角一直有一个落地灯吗?(同上)

Yesterday I asked the teacher questions three times in class. 昨天课堂上,我向老师问了三次问题。(出现累积次数或累积时间时,就不能用 would 和 used to… 来代替。)

三、“be used + 介词 to + 名词(或动名词短语)”表示“习惯于……”之意,并有时态之分

These students had been used to(或 had been accustomed to)hearing English spoken by native speakers at home so they had little difficulty when they went abroad. (那时)这些学生在国内已习惯于听外国人讲的英语,因此出国后没有什么困难。

You’ll soon get (或 become) used to eating a large breakfast in England. 你在英国会很快养成早餐吃得多的习惯。

I’m quite (或 have been) used to the way (in which) you Americans speak. 我很习惯于(或已经)习惯于你们美国人说话的方式。(句末为定语从句。)

四、“be used + 带 to 的不定式”表示“(被)用来干什么”之意

Computers can also be used to design machines and instruments. 计算机也可用来设计机器和仪器。

Under 的搭配用法及其分类理解

一、介词 under 作“在…下方”讲或引申为数量“不足…”讲时的用法举例

pass under the bridge(汽车等)在桥下通过;

A lot of water has passed under the bridge since we met at the railway station. 自从我们在火车站见面以来已过了很长时间(或起了很大变化);

fall under… 跌到(火车)下面;

get (v.) under…(使)(老鼠即 the mice 等)从(墙即 the wall)底下过来,使(真空吸尘器即 the vacuum cleaner)伸到(椅子)下面;

get (或 bring keep)… under control 使(火即 the fire 或男孩)受到控制或管教;

go under…(老鼠)从(墙)底下钻过去,(硬币即 the coin)滚到(椅子)下方;

place (或 put)… under… 将(这封信)放到(那些书)下面,将(某人)逮捕[under 后加 arrest],对(某人)监视或对(病人)观察[后加 observation];

keep(或 store)sth. under… 将某物搁(或存放)在(床即 the bed)下;

stay (或remain, hold, keep, stop) under (water) for 10 seconds(他)在水下呆了 10 秒钟[过去时或完成时];

lay the cables under the sea 将电缆铺设在海底;

The child came out from under the bridge. 这孩子从桥底下出来。There are under ten computers in the room. 房间里的计算机不足十台。Don't give a lot of money to children under seven years old. 不要给七岁以下的小孩许多钱。The train travels 200 kilometers in under an hour. 这辆火车不到一小时能走 200 公里。Our housing expenses are under what was expected. 我们的住房费用低于预计值。This pen is 20 yuan under the market. 这枝钢笔比市场价低 20 元。It seems to me that he is an officer under a general. 在我看来,他似乎是低于将军级的军官。

二、介词 under 和有关动词搭配,表示“在…条件下”或“在…领导,指导下”时的用法举例

work under her able leadership (或 guidance)(他们)在她的很有才干的领导(或指导)下上作;

learn Chinese under sb. (小孩)在某人指导下学习汉语;

carry out the test flight under these conditions 在这些条件下进行这项试飞;

That company has been labouring under difficulties for the last three weeks。那家公司最近三周一直在困境中挣扎。The boat goes fast under a sail. 这条船扬帆疾行。

三、介词 under 和有关名词连用,表示“处于…过程中、正在…中”之意

This suggestion is under study. 这个建议正在研究中。be under…(这座立交桥即 the flyover)正在(建造即 construction)中;

(手表)正在(修理即 repair)中;

(这个问题)正在(讨论即 discussion)中或正在(调查即 investigation)中,(房地产业即 the real estate business)正在(发展即 development);

see… under… 看见正在建设中的(高架内环路即 the elevated inner-ring road)[under 后接 construction, 作后置定语];

visit a special economic zone under development 访问一个正在开发的经济特区等

注:上述例子中的 under 短语相当于 being + 相应动词的过去分词。如第 1 例中的 under study 相当于 being studied, 第 4 例中的 under development 就相当于 being developed 等

四、介词 under 和有关动词搭配,表示归属含义时的用法举例

Such problems belong under the general heading of the application of computers to the national economy. 这样一些问题就属于计算机用于国民经济的一般范畴。

Both words go under S. 这两个词都归入字母S。

This book should be grouped under information technology. 这本书应归入信息技术。

五、副词 under 用法举例

There is a fence there, and the mouse wants to go under. 那边有围墙,而老鼠想从底下钻过去;

go under(船或人)沉下去,(公司)失败或破产;

keep… under 控制(感情即 the feelings 或火),压制(人民);

remain (或 stay, hold, keep) under(游泳的人即 the swimmers)呆(或停留)在下面约五秒钟[后加 for about five seconds]等

六、under 作形容词用法举例

an under layer下层;

an under servant 一个手下仆人;

take an under dose of medicine 服用剂量不足的药;

The patient was under one hour after he had taken an overdose of sleeping pills. 这病人服用过量安眠药后一小时便昏迷了。

七、Under,Below,Beneath 等用法比较参阅第 25 节

Until 和 Till 的用法和理解

until 和 till 词意相同,只是在正式文件或句首常用 until。它们既可作介词,又可作连词,引出时间状语或时间状语从句。

一、until 和 till 用于肯定句时,句中谓语动词常表示持续性动作,句意为“持续性动作到…(时)为止”

Until when shall we wait for her? 我们要等到她何时为止?

Please wait for her until (或 till) she comes back. 请等到她回来为止。

She went on reviewing chemistry until (或 till) after 12 o’clock at midnight. 她持续复习化学直到半夜 12 点以后。(介词短语 after… 作介词 until 或 till 的宾语.)

二、until (和 till) 用于否定句中,可先按“直到…以前没有…”来理解,但一到句中表示的这个时间,动作由否定变为肯定,也即谓语动作发生了。一般可译为:“直到…时才…”

I did not find the letter until (或 till) this morning. 我直到今天早晨才发现这封信。

She didn't finish reading your paper until after l turned back. 直到我回来以后她才读完你的论文。

They were not supposed to arrive until 7 o’clock. 当时他们定于七点到达。

Would you please not to read the listening comprehension script until after you have listened to the tape. 请你在听了磁带录音后再看听力理解材料。

She has received few letters until (或 till) recently. 直到最近她才接到几封信。(注意 few 构成否定句。)

Don't come and see me until (或 till) you have fulfilled your task. 直到你完成任务才能前来见我。

I had not, till (或 until) then, thought out a good idea. 直到那时我才想出一个好主意。(注意 till then 插在谓语中间。)

三、强调结构“it is (或 was) not until… that…”的用法

It was not until 10 o’clock (或 until the rain stopped) that we continued to work. 直到十点钟(或直到雨停止时)我们才继续工作。

It was not until about 40 years ago that an electronic computer was invented which could lead to a rapid development of knowledge economy. 直到约 40 年前才发明了电子计算机,从而导致知识经济的迅速发展。

四、until 引导的时间状语从句可以省略与主句相应的主语及其 be 的相应形式

The letter is to be left here until (或 till) called for。这封信留在这里待领。

五、注意 Until (或 till), Before, By 引出的短语或从句在时间方面的差异。参阅第 31 节、三

Up 的用法及其动词短语的分类理解和判断

up 的基本意思是“向上、起来、在高处、走近、达到较高或厉害程度”等。但和动词搭配时,常常不易于正确解动词短语含义。现在以 bring up… 为例。它作“往上带(一杯茶)”讲,是它的本义。“提高(英语等)和(在会上)提起(他的过去)或提出(一些问题)”显然是用于转义。“抚养(孩子)”是由“把(孩子)拉扯大”引申过来的。不少人将 bring up a doctor 错译为“培养医生”。由于医生是成年人,不能再长高长大,故只能理解为“将医生领上去或领上楼”。但在一定上下文中有时却又作“训斥、责骂(某人)”讲,这是由“将某人往上拽、拉”引申过来,以示对他教训一番。至于“呕吐(大部分早饭)”,则是由“在人体内把…往上带”转义来的。此外它还可作“(使)马、车、船等停下来”,则是由 bring a horse up 发展来的,意为“把马缰绳往上提拉使马停住”。随着语言的发展,由“停住马”扩大到“停住车、船”等方面,并且又进一步发展到也可用“(车、船、马等作主语)+ bring up”的主动态结构来表示“停下来”。bring the car up to the top of the mountain 可理解为“把汽车开到山顶”。若是 bring the total up to 5000 dollars,则为“将总数上升到五千美元”。上述八种 bring up 的用法(实际上共有十多种用法)的英译汉文字各异,但从英语角度看,其中 up 始终作“向上”讲,而 bring 本义仍不失为作“带”讲。以往不少中国学生在背诵这些用法时总感到其中缺少一根红线把它们串起来。这里必须靠英语本义而决不是靠翻译过来的汉语来串联。由此可见,按英语思维学习英语固定短语的重要意义。如果形象化地学习上面的 bring up a horse(或car)作“停下马(或车)”讲,同时联想同义近义的 pull (或 draw) up a horse (或 car),效果就更好。

一、副词 up 表示“起来、向上、向上发展”的动词短语举例

hand up… to sb. 把(刷子)递给(高处如梯子上的)某人[相当于 pass sth. up to sb. 的含义],把(钥匙即 the key)上交给某人,把(我们的要求即 our requirements)上报给某人;

bear up… 挑起或肩负起(某重担),抬起(某物或病人等);

boil (v.) up(牛奶)沸腾起来或煮开,(辩论即 the debate)激烈展开,将(汤即 the soup)烧开或热一下;

call… up 朝高处喊叫,给(某人)打电话,(在早晨 5 点)把(某人)叫醒,(某纪念物)使回想起(童年即 the childhood);

catch up… 抓起(钱、棍子、手枪),赶上(某人等),跟上并理解(你说的话);

climb up out of the cave 从洞中爬上去;

come up(太阳)升起,(医生)上来,(某问题在会上)被提到[用于转义],(新影片)将上演;

dig up… 挖出(珍宝),发掘(某种想法)或找出(借口);

set (v.) “端上(酒或饮料),上酒,升(旗),挂上(招牌或标志即 a sign),树立(好榜样即 a good example);

end up as…(某人)最终晋升为(将军);

step up to…(某人)提升为(经理);

fill (v.) up(司机)加油,将(油箱即 the tank)加满油[后接 with petrol],(一场大雨即 a heavy rain)以后(湖)灌满水,(沟渠即 the ditch)壅塞,填(表即 a form);

get (v.) up 起身、起床、将(小孩)扶起来,使(火箭)上天;

go up 上去、上(北京)[后接 to Beijing];

go up to bed 上床睡觉;

hang up… 挂上或挂起(电话筒、大衣、帽子等),(坏天气)耽误(工作、计划)[由“使工作、计划等挂起来即中断”引申过来];

have… up 邀请(某人),请(某人)上来;

heat (v.) up 加热一下(汤),(他的脸)在发烧[用进行时],加剧(通“货膨胀即 inflation),(竞选活动即 the campaign)已趋于白热化[用现在完成时];

keep… up 保持(收入即 the income)高水平;

remain (或 stay) up(价格等)依然高居不下;

look up 抬头看;

look up to sb. 敬仰(伟大的科学家等)[由“抬头仰望…”引申过来];

pass up… to sb. 把(某物)上交给(上级等),或向上提(某些要求等);

pull… up 把某人或某物拉上去[用于爬山中];

push… up 推(自行车)上去;

put up… 举起(右手),升起(一面红旗),张贴(通知即 the notice),提高(价格等),支起(帐篷),盖起(房子);

raise up… 举起(右手),把(小孩)举高些;

roll (v.) up 把(画)卷起来,(烟雾即 the smoke)袅袅上升;

stand (v.) up(使)站起来,(使某人)空等;

stand up for… 支持(某人、某事)[由“为了…而站了起来”引申过来];

step (v.) up 向上走,(生产、工资)提高,加快(步伐即 one’s pace);

shoot (v.) up 向上开枪,(某人)飞快地往上跑,(小孩)迅速成长,(火焰即 the flame)突然升起;

take up… 拿起(武器),吸起(灰尘即 dirt),从地下采(油)或采(煤)[后接 from below the ground],上任(新职即 one’s new post),接纳(乘客);

turn up… 挽起(袖子),将(灯)开得更亮,将(收音机)开得更响,翻(土),(在箱子里)翻出(书);

walk up 步行上去(如上楼、上山),请进来看或上来看[马戏团前招揽观众用语];

wind up… 摇手柄将(汽车窗户)关上,对(手表)上弦等

二、up 用于“卖光、全部买下、烧光、吃光、喝光、填满、付清、结束、完成、清理干净、弄脏、搞乱”时的动词短语举例

buy up… 全部买下(商店内的钢笔等);

sell up… = sell out…(他)卖光(所有自己的货物),(她的货物);

隹备全部出售[此时主语是货物。用进行时主动态作谓语];

be sold up = be sold out(某人)变卖所有东西[注意主语是人,却用被动态来表示];

burn (v.) up(房子)烧光,(火)烧旺起来,(火箭)焚毁(当重新进入大气层时),(他)把(废纸即 the waste paper)烧掉,使(某人)发怒;

drink up… 喝光(这杯酒);

Drink up!干杯!eat up… 吃光(面包),浪费(时间)[转义。下同],(这旧机器)消耗(大量的电),(洪水)冲毁(建筑物),(某疾病)搞垮(某人),(某单调乏味工作)烦死(某人),击败(对手)[这么多灵活译法,但均由“吃光”引申过来];

book up… 预订好(房间);

be booked up(旅馆)被全部预订完;

use up… 用完(汽油、粮食),花完(钱);

fill (v.) up(剧场)客满,(这些活动)占满(他的时间),(某人)填(表),充实(故事);

fill (v.) up with…(河等)填满(淤泥即 mud),用(好土)充填(那块土地);

pay up… 付清或还清(钱);

cash up for the goods 支付或付清货款;

settle up… 付清(债务即 the debt),结清(帐即 an account)[若后加 with sb. ,则动词宾语常省略不用。其意思仍为“跟某人结清帐”];

finish up…(小孩)吃完(早饭),喝完(这酒),结束(这项研究)[注意“finish up as…”作“(某人)最后成为(总经理等)”讲,而“finish up with…”则作“(会议)最后以(一首歌即 a song)告终”讲[联系 end up 的类似用法];

close up(商店)关门停业[=shut up],(道路)关闭(待修),(某人)闭口不语或沉默不语[=shut up];

clear up… 结束(剩下的工作),澄清或解决(某问题),整理(房间),清理(垃圾);

clean up… = mop up… 把(房间)清理、打扫或擦洗干净,清剿或扫荡(残敌等)[但 clean up money (或 a profit)“捞取钱财(或利润)”讲];

rest up(某人病后)彻底休息或充分休息(几周);

dirty (v.) up 弄脏(衣服),玷污(某人)名声,(地毯即 the carpet)易脏[后加 easily];

mess (v.) up 弄脏(房间),搞乱(计划),干扰(通讯),(他)英语测试考砸[后加 the English test],(敌人)陷入困境等

三、up 表示“到较高程度、到厉害程度”时的动词短语举例

break (v.) up 拆开(旧船等),敲开(路面等),使(土壤等)裂开,(冰、婚姻等)破裂,(群众)散开,(舞会等)散场或结束,(警察等)结束(战斗),(坏消息)使(某人)心碎意乱[但“(笑话等)使人感到十分有趣”。为此必须注意上下文],(学校等)放假[由前面“散开、散场、结束”引申过来];

break (或 split) up… into… 把(这些学生)分成(几个小组);

crack (v.) up(飞机)坠毁,撞毁(汽车等),将(煤等)破碎,(某人)精神和健康垮台,过分赞扬(这个城镇),捧腹大笑;

crt up… 称颂(自己的故乡),夸奖(某人的能力);

cut up… 切碎(胡萝卜即 the carrots);

dry up(小溪等)干涸,(某人的影响等)消失[转义],(某人)说不出话来,停止说话[由“干涸、枯竭”引申过来];

grind up… 碾碎(煤等);

poun up (或 down)… 把(岩石)粉碎;

slow(v. )up (或 down)(使)(车)放慢车速[后接 one’s car],(使)(某人)轻松一下;

split (v.) up(某两人)关系破裂,(使)(某公司等)分裂;

study up… 钻研(这个项目)[也可接 on the project];

tear up… 撕碎(信件、合同等);

wash (v.) up 洗干净(那些盘子),(潮水即 the tide)把(小船)冲到岸上;

wear up (或 out)… 将(衣服等)穿破等

四、副词 up 跟某些动词连用,表示该动词的动作完成之意,常可译为“…好、…了、…住、…成、…上、…出”等,甚至还可加其它一些词来表达“完成”。本项实际上是对前几项的补充

bear up(病人)顶得住[由“承受住、撑住身子、支撑起来”转义而来];

bear up under…(地板即 the floor)承受住(机器的重量等),(某人)坚强地经受住(亲人死亡的消息等);

bear up against… 承受住(困难、悲痛即 the grief等);

bind up ten articles into one book 把十篇文章装订成册;

check up… 检查(某人)身体[指体检],核查完(事实等);

check up on… 检查完(工作),核对(火车时刻、操作记录等),(警察局等)调查或审理(某人)[on 有时可省略];

gather up… 收拾好(书、信等);

look up… in the drawer 把(信件)锁(好)在抽屉里;

cover up… 盖好(食物等),给(婴儿等)盖好被子,(谎言等不能)掩盖(错误等);

learn up… 学清楚或学好(这些材料等);

sew up… 缝补(裂缝即 rents 等),缝好(伤口等);

measure (v.) up 量好(裂缝等),(这些产品)符合标准[可理解为后面省略 to the required standards],(某人)合格;

nail up… 钉住(这扇门等),钉上(一块牌子即 a sign);

paint up… 油漆好(门、窗等);

tune up…(某人)给(乐器)调好音或定弦,开始演奏或唱,调试好(发动机)等

五、up 用于“熬夜、不睡觉、直挺着、起身”时的动词短语举例

be up all night doing sth. 他(做某事)一夜未睡觉[注意这里表语 up 表示“直挺着身子未睡觉”。“起床”用 get up,道理也在于此。由此出发,去理解下列各短语];

keep (v.) up(使)熬夜,(价格等)坚挺,(士气等)保持高昂[后加 very well],(人)保持良好状态,保持(英语)水平;

remain up 过了睡觉时间仍不睡,(价格)仍高;

stay up 呆着不睡觉,(某人)依然(跟我们即 withus)呆在一起,(价格、质量等)维持不变[若后接 in the mountains two days,则为“在山区里呆了两天”];

sit (v.) up(母亲)坐着熬夜(等我即 for me),(使)坐直,在床上坐起来[指躺下后采用坐的姿势,用 in bed 搭配],(意外的消息等)使(某人)感到关注和诧异;

wait up(某人)熬夜等待,等着不睡觉;

want up(病人等)想起床、起身或起来等

六、up 用于“建立起、创办起、兴建起等”时的动词短语举例

build (v.) up 把(墙等)砌高、扩建(图书馆等),(她的存款即 her savings)在增值[用进行时。指“加上利息后增值”],(乌云)密集,(敌人兵力)集结,增强(身体即 one’s body);

be built up(这块地)盖满房子;

fling up… 草草地盖(茅屋既 a hut 等);

go up(新楼)在兴建中[用进行时];

grow up(新的城市)在崛起[用进行时];

knock up… “英”;仓促建造(房子),仓促做(一顿饭);

put up… 支起(帐篷),盖起(楼房等);

run up… 匆匆地盖起一幢房子,仓促缝制(衬衫等);

set up… 砌(一道墙等),建造(发电厂等),创办(学校等),建立一个(委员会等);

spring (v.) up 涌现出(新的城镇)[用完成时];

throw up… 很快地搭起(小屋等);

work up… 建立起(公司、研究所等),制订(计划)等

七、up “用于增长、提高、增强、上升、上涨、加快”时的动词短语举例

be up by + 8 percent(产量、消费)增加 8%;

build (v.) up(和平希望)在增长[用进行时],增强(信心);

get (v.) up(风、火)变得猛烈,增加(速度等);

grow up(孩子)在长大[用进行时];

go up(温度、价格)上升;

go up with a leap(收入等)猛增[leap 为“跳跃”];

jump up = leap up(价格等)突然上升,(某人)往上跳;

move up(英镑币值等)上升,(排队的人)向前移动;

pick (v.) up(价格等)上涨,(商务、情绪等)有起色,(病人等)恢复健康或好起来,拾起(纸),收拾(房间);

pull (或 bring, polish, rub)one’s English up 提高英语水平;

put up… 提高(税金、房租等),提出(建议等)[注:联系近义短语:put on… 增加(速度),增加(体重一磅等)];

quick en (v.) up 加快(工作速度),(生活费的上涨即 the rise in the cost of living)加快;

run up(价格)猛涨,(销售量)激增,(某人)向上跑;

shoot (v.) up(价格等)猛涨,(GDP 等)猛增,(小孩、玉米等)迅速成长或生长[常用进行时。但 be shot up 常作“(人)被击伤”或“(房屋等)被击毁”讲];

speed (v.) up(心脏)跳动加速,(汽车)加速,加快(工作速度即 the rate of work);

step (v.) up 增加(数量),(外贸等)增长;

bring… up to… 使(总数即 the total)达到(三百万元);

work (v.) up(船)在加快航速,(商务)兴旺起来,(他的支持)在增强,在提高(英语、效率)[常用进行时];

write up… 增大(股票)面额,将(某人或其名字)写在高处(如墙上、布告牌上),写文章介绍或称颂(某人)[可按 write 和 up 词义去思维并理解短语本义];

The tide is coming up. 潮水在上涨。Investmentis turning up. 投资额在上升(或增长)。

八、up 用于“提出、提起、提名”时的动词短语举例

bring up…(他在会上)提起或提出(某问题、证据等);

come up(或 forward)(一些新问题)提了出来[过去时];

come up with…(某人)提出(问题的答案等);

drag up… 提起或提出(相同的问题等)[含贬义];

pipe up with a suggestion 大声提出建议[联系 pipe up 表示“大声奏乐”,于是本义是:突然哗啦哗啦地提出建议];

put up… 提出(建议、问题等),提出(三个候选人),提名(某人当秘书等)[后接 sb. as a secretary];

set up… 提出(一个计划或新理论等);

take up the matter with sb. 向某人提出这件事;

throw up…(在法庭上即 in court)随即提出或提起(某人过错)等

注:表示“提出…”的英语短语很多,可参阅第 87 节 out 专题。

九、含副词 up 的短语表示“上前走近、到达”之意,而 up to… 表示“往高处去的目的地或目标”,有时表示“达到某标准、要求、数量”等

come up(他)走近或走过来;

come up to me(她们)走到我眼前;

go up(她)走过来;

go up to the stairs and turn right 走到楼上并往右拐;

bring… up to…(他)带领(我们)到(山顶)上,使(某人或某产品)达到(所要求的标准等);

draw… up to… 将(某物)拖到(山顶等);

pull (v.) up 拔(草),将(袜子)往上拉,(救生员)抓住女孩头发把(她)拽上来[后接 by the hair],(我在离小孩五米前)停住了(汽车)[用过去时。后接 five metres away from the child],(亮红灯时汽车)停了下来[后用过去时,后加 when the light turned red],(警察)在路口把(我们)叫停[后接 at the corner of the road];

run up 往上跑,往楼上跑;

run up to…(学生)跑到(老师)跟前,(修理费)达(500 美元)[相当于 a mount to…];

send up…发放(信号或火箭等),把(医生)送上去或送上楼;

send… up to…将(饭菜)从一层送到(餐厅即 the dining hall)[后接 from the first floor];

step (v.) up 向上走,登上,走近,登上(你的办公室)[后接 to your office],(他)走上站台[后接to the platform],逐步增加(社会活动即 the social activities),提高(他们的社会地位即 their social position),(贸易)在增长[进行时],某人(被)提升;

step… up to… 将(望远镜的放大倍数即 the magnification of the telescope)提高到 30 倍[后接 thirty];

take up…领(某人)上去或上楼,(用一支胳膊)抱起(小孩)[后接 under an arm],挖开(部分路面)[例如“为了埋电线即 to lay wires”];

take… up to… 将(这些信件)拿到(办公室);

walk up 往上走,往楼上走等

十、up 用于表示“抚养、喂养、培育成人”时的动词短语中举例

bring up… 抚养、养育(某人)[本义为:“将(孩子)拉扯大”,但包含“教育他”意味,无贬义];

drag up… 把(孩子)拉扯大[含有贬义:只是养他,而未着重教育];

feed up… 补养(某人)[由“养肥”引申过来],喂养(动物等);

fetch sb. up 抚养(自己的弟、妹等),饲养(动物等);

grow up into…(某人)长成一个聪明的人[后接 into (或 to be) a wise man];

train up… 培育好(教师等)[与 turn out… 近义]等

十一、up 用于表示“呕吐、吐出、吐露”的动词短语中举例

bring up… 吐出(大部分饭食即 most of the meal 等)[由“从体内往上带出饭食”引申过来。注意 bring up 为多义短语,应根据上下文来确定其语义];

cast (v.) up 呕吐(食物等)[由“往上丢弃已吃的食物”引申过来。注意常用无宾语的进行时态表示“在呕吐”之意];

come up(稀食等)吐出;

fetch (v.) up 吐出(大量米饭等)[由“从低处往上带出…”引申过来],请(医生)上来;

cough up (或 out)… 咳(血、痰等),吐露(公司名称、本人姓名等),交待(某种阴谋、事情真相等)[由“咳出…”引申过来],付清(债务、会费)[系转义。还可用 pay up… 代替];

turn sb. up(臭味等)使某人感到恶心或呕吐;

throw up… 呕吐(食物等)[由“使…往上抛”引申过来];

vomit (up)… 呕吐、喷出或吐出(饭、汤等);

get… up(某人)吐出(大部分晚饭等),扶起(小孩等),鼓起(勇气),使(火箭)上天等

十二、up 用于表示“发生、出现、露面、涌现”的动词短语中举例

come up(如果)发生任何事[if anything comes up],吹起一阵轻风[主语用 a light wind,后用过去时];

A few new customs grew up. 产生了几个新的风俗习惯。open up(许多可能性开始)出现;

shoot up(火焰等)突然从屋顶升起或突然喷出[后接 from the roof of the house],(价格)猛涨;

show up(昨天某人)露面了[用过去一般时];

show sb. up 用粗俗笑语使某人难堪[后接 with the rude jokes];

spring up from time to time(新楼)不停地涌现出来;

start (v.) up(危险)出现,(一股强风)吹起,(疑虑)在(她头脑)中出现[用过去时。后接 in her mind];

turn (v.) up(他)出其不意地露面了[用一般过去时。后加 unexpectedly。由“转身显露”引申过来],(某事)意外地发生,(许多新产品)出现了[用现在完成时],(这本书)(在房间角落里)找到[用过去一般时。由“出现在…”引申过来],开大(收音机、电视机等),卷起(袖子即 sleeves),翻出(财宝即 treasure),翻阅(辞典等),翻出或查出(新的证据即 the new evidence);

Something is up. 出了点事。

注:表示“发生、出现”的近义短语很多,不限于用“…up”。参阅第 87 节、二、Ⅴ。

十三、up,up with 或 up to 用于“赶上、并驾齐驱、保持同步或协调一致”,的动词短语中举例

come up with…(我们)赶上(长途汽车等);

catch up… = catch up with (或 up to…) 赶上(某人等),跟上并理解(他说的话即 what he says 等);

fetch up with…(她)赶上(某人),(他)在作出努力后终于拿到(一份合同等)或最终领取(一等奖等);

draw up with (或 to)… 赶上或追上(某人或电车);

keep up with… 和(某人)保持同步,和(老同学等)保持联系;

pull up with (或 up to)…(她)赶得上(那个运动员等);

get up with (或 to)… 跟上(时代即 the times),追上或赶上(某人或公共汽车等);

check up with…(他的讲话等)和(事实等)相符等

十四、up 用于表示“收拾、安排、装修”的动词短语中举例

clean up the room 把房间打扫干净[但 clean up… 还可用于转义,作“肃清(敌军),取缔(赌场等),根除(社会弊端等)”讲;

若后接 enormous fortunes, 则作“非法赚取或搜刮大量财富”讲];

clear up…(对厨房等)进行打扫、整理、擦地等[但 clear up the messy situation 为“收拾残局”];

do… up 装修(房间)[通常指粉刷房间等],打扮自己[接 oneself];

fit up a new office 装修新办公室或配置新办公室的家具等;

fix up… 收拾、修缮或布置(房间、房子等),安排(学生)住宿(过夜)[后者也可用 put sb. up];

make up a room 安排一个房间[但 make up a new bed 搭一个新床,而 make the bed 为“铺好床”];

pack (v.) up 收拾(自己的东西、行李等),(他们)停止工作或收工[由“收拾东西即准备走”引申过来];

pick up… 收拾(工具、房间、行李等),蒐集(钱币);

tidy up… 整理(厨房)等

十五、up 用于表示“集中加在一起、凑集、合计”的动词短语中举例

add up… 把(这些数字)加起来,全面估计(优、缺点)[由“把优、缺点放在一起综合评价”引申过来];

cash up… 合计(一天全部收款),付清或支出(这笔钱);

count up… 算出(所有这些人、小时、东西)的总数;

count up to ten(小孩)能数到十;

dig up some money for the airline ticket 凑集一些钱买机票;

run up… 将(这些数字)很快加在一起,(某人)积欠(几笔债即 a few debts);

sum up… 计算出(生产成本等),(老师)总结或归纳出(课文的三个要点等);

sum up to…(你的分数)加在一起为(85 分);

collect up… 将(所有自己的财物等)收集或收拾在一起[相当于 gather… together];

build up… 积累(储备金即 a reserve fund),be built up by the narrow bridge 由于桥窄被堵(汽车)形成一条长龙[意译。这里含有“聚集”含意]等

十六、up 用于表示“堵塞、阻挡、拦住、封住、堵满”的动词短语中举例

The traffic banked up at the intersection. 交叉口上交通拥挤起来。(这里 "bank" 作“堆积”讲。)bank up… 建堤(或坝)挡(江、河),封(炉子、炉火等);

close up… 封闭或堵住(道路、大门、旧井等),闭住(眼睛等);

close up over… 对(某事)闭口不语;

hold up… 使(交通)受堵,使(施工等)耽搁,(坏人)抢劫(某人、银行)[由“拦截…”引申过来];

be held up by…(谈判等)由于(意见分歧)而陷于停顿,(我们)由于(交通事故)被堵(在路上);

shut up…(沉船等)关闭或堵住(通道等),关(人)或拴住(狗等);

be snowed up(某地区)被雪封住 be taken up by…(出口即 the exits)被(自行车)堵住;

tie up the traffic 阻碍交通[由“捆绑…”引申过来];

dam up… 给(山谷等)筑坝拦水,抑制(感情悲痛、怒火等)[由“筑坝挡住…”比喻引申过来];

board up…(某人)用板遮挡(门上的洞孔),(某人)用板把(一群羊等)围起来[直译:把板竖起来挡住羊];

be filled up with…(运河)填满(淤泥即 mud);

fill up… with… 用(好土)充填(这块土地)[up 后接 the land];

stop up… = seal up… = block up… 密封(窗缝、门户等),封死或堵上(墙孔、窗口)等

十七、up 用于表示“保存、封存、搁置、收藏、躲藏、埋藏、关押、穿得暖和”的动词短语中的举例

bottle up… 将(酒等)装入瓶中,把(感情、怒火等)闷在心里,把(敌舰等)封锁(在港内)[名词 bottle 本义为“瓶子”,动词就含有“把…包装并封存在瓶内”的意思];

box (或 case) up… 把(东西或商品)装入箱内或匣申保存;

cage up… = cage… in 用笼子将(鸟、老虎等)关起来,把(鸟、老虎等)关在笼里;

cork up… 塞住(瓶子等),完全包围封锁(敌人堡垒);

bekept 或 corked, up(手稿等)封存起来,(感情等)埋藏(在他心中即 inside him);

hang up(船等)搁浅(在沙滩上),(某人中途)停下来[由“挂起来”引申过来];

be (或 get) hung up for… (或 owing to…)(某人的计划或工作)由于(坏天气、粗心大意)受到耽误或耽搁;

be laid up (或 lie up) forrepairs(船、车等)搁置以便检修;

lock up… 把(钱、信件)锁藏(在抽屉里),关押(犯人),把(狗、门、房子等)锁起来,(她)把(对她丈夫的怀念即 the memories of her husband)藏(在心中);

do up… = put up… 加工贮存(蔬菜、水果);

store up… 贮藏(粮食、煤),把(怒火)埋藏(在心中即 in one’s heart);

beset up with…(某人)备足(粮、煤);

be well wrapped (或 covered) up(孩子们)穿得很暖和[由“孩于们的身体被(衣服)紧密地裹着”引申过来];

roll oneself up in all the clothes 某人穿得暖和 [由“把所有衣服裹卷着自己”引申过来];

bundle (v.) up against the cold wind(使)穿得暖和些以抵挡寒风[联系 bundle 本义:捆、包]等

十八、up 用于表示“疲劳、过分疲劳”的动词短语中举例

be beaten up(某人)精疲力尽[由“身体被打垮”比喻引申过来];

knock sb. up(长途旅行)使某人疲乏;

be used up(某人)筋疲力尽等

注:为了提高语感,横向联系表示“疲乏”含义的其它短语,以便体会其不同的表示方法(参阅第 87 节、七)。

十九、up 用于“打扮、装饰”时的动词短语中表示“达到较高水平”

make (v.) up 为(某人)梳妆打扮[中间用 oneself,则为“自己梳妆打扮”,并且还可省略],往(脸即 one’s face)上施脂抹粉;

do… up 打扮自己[中间用 oneself],(女孩)做(头发),装修(房屋),修改(服装等);

dress (v.) up(使)穿上盛装,(使)精心打扮,穿母亲的衣服来打扮[后接 in Mother’s clothes],(某人)装饰(房间、自行车等);

get… up smartly(母亲)把(她的孩子)打扮得很漂亮,把(书)装帧得很美观;

smarten (v.) up 某人(为过节即 for the festival)打扮得整齐漂亮等

二十、up 用于“大声讲、有点过分地赞扬”时的动词短语举例

answer up 大声回答,清楚地答话;

speak up (或 out) 大声讲话,大胆地说;

talk (v.) up 较大声地说话,大胆地说,宣传或赞扬(某人的新书等);

cry up… 称颂或过分地赞扬(该城市等);

set up a protest (或 a loud yell, a wail) 大声抗议(或高声喊叫,嚎啕大哭);

sing up (或 out) 使劲地唱,唱得很漂亮等

二十一、up 用于“讨好、奉承、吹捧、吹嘘、宣扬”时的动词短语举例

play up… 宣扬(自己的较好作用、房子的高质量等);

play up to sb. (他)迎合或讨好(他的经理)[由“给某人当配角”引申过来];

talk sb. up 宣扬或吹捧某人;

talk up to sb. 向某人献殷勤等

二十二、up 用于“振作、激动、紧张、发脾气”时的短语动词举例

be burned up about sth. (他)为某事发火;

blow up(某人)大发脾气或发怒,(那家工厂)爆炸;

cheer (v.) up(使)高兴起来,(使)振作起来;

clear up(某人脸部)开朗起来;

fire (v.) up(某人)发火,(他)激怒或煽动(对手即 opponents);

get worked up(某人)激动起来;

gets hotted up(好消息)使某人激动起来;

have one’s temper up(某人)给惹怒了;

His face lighted (或 lit) up with joy 他喜笑颜开。[相当于:A smile lighted (或 lit) sb’s face up. ]

二十三、up 用于“放弃、抛弃、让出”时的动词短语举例

give up… 放弃(这个生意、希望等),戒(烟、酒等);

pass (v.) up 放过或错过(机会等),放过(某人)[指“没有认出某人而把他放了过去”],(这些气味即 the smells)放入空中[后接 into the air];

throw (或 fling) up (或 away)… 抛弃或错过(好的机会、工作等);

yield… up to sb. 向某人屈服[up 前接 oneself],向某人让出(房间等),让(座位)给某人等

二十四、注意 up 作表语时的丰富多采的用法。必须根据上下文及其常用的固定短语的意思去体会其含义

The sun is up. 太阳已升起。(up 本义:起来,在高处。)

My hand (或 this ladder) has been up for some minutes. 我的手已经举了(或这个梯子已经摆了)几分钟了。(联系hold up… f和 put up… 作“举(手)”和“支起(梯子)”讲。)

He is downstairs, but he’ll be up in a minute. 他在楼下,等一会儿就上楼来。(联系 come up, go up, walk up 等。)

What time do you have to be up tomorrow? 你明天早晨何时务必起床?(联系 get (vi. vt.) up)

The production is up. 生产上升了。(还可用于温度、价格、潮水等。可联系 go up, race up, step up 等短语。)

What was up (with the machine)?(当时)出了什么事(或机器出了什么故障)?(联系表示“发生”或“突然发生”的短语,如come up, bob up, popup, start up等。)

The plan was up for discussion. 该计划被提出进行讨论。(联系:be brought up, come up, be thrown up等。)

She is up in London. 她呆在伦敦。(联系:“上大城市伦敦”用 go up to London, 因此留在伦敦就仍可保留这个up。)

I heard that the man was up in court again. What is the charge this time? 我听说这个男人又被传讯出庭。这次对他的控告是什么?(联系:He was brought up on a charge of causing disturbance. 他以扰乱治安罪被传讯。)

His blood (或 anger) was up. 他被激怒了。(联系:Your rudeness got his blood(或 anger)up. 你的粗暴无礼惹他非常生气或惹他的血压升高。have (或户 put, set) one’s hackles(某人)发怒等)

She is up with you now. 她现在跟你不相上下。(联系 keep, catch, get 或 draw + up with sb. 等。)

The new house has not been up long。新房子建成不久. (联系 go up, be put up 和 be set up 等。)

Time is up. 时间到了(或结束了)。(应理解为“规定的时间”这个点已到达“终点”或联系 be used up 被用完. )

The corn is up and ready to be harvested. 玉米已长出(或成熟),可以收割了。(联系 grow up。)

He is too up to sleep. 他太激动了,睡不着觉。(联系 be steamed up, get hotted up, get worked up, be set up by… 等均作“…激动起来”讲。)

The blinds were up. 窗帘拉起来了。(联系 be drawn up, go up. 等。)

The wind was up again. 又起风了。(联系 come up, blow up。)

二十五、副词 up 和其它介词短语连用时,可分别按各自词义或和前面的动词短语相结合一起来理解

The shops keep open up till(或 up to)8 p.m. 商店营业到晚上八点;

come up to(或 be up to the standards(人或产品)符合标准;

stand up to…(我)经受得起(这种气候等);

walk up to… 走近到(学校的大门等);

work up to the position of a manager 逐渐升到经理职务;

feel up to this task 感到能胜任此项工作;

face up to… 大胆地面对或正视(困难等)[可用 stick up to… 代之];

take up with… 接受(这个理论等),(他)跟(你)交往很合得来;

study up on the project 就这个项目进行仔细研究;

be up against… 面临(困难的任务),碰到(竞争);

be up for…(他们)正在考试[后接 the exam];

be on a ship up for Shanghai 正乘船去上海;

He was two up on me. 他赢了我二分。be well up in…(某人)精通(物理)[联系 learn up…, study up…]等

二十六、up against 用于“偶然碰到或遇见”时的动词短语举例

come up against… 遭遇到(一些出乎意料的耽搁即 some unexpected delays)[由“走上前去碰到…的阻碍”引申过来];

bring up against… 遇到(一些耽搁等)[由“受到阻碍而停住”引申过来];

be up against…(这家公司)遇到(另一家公司的严重的竞争即serious competition from the other company)[一般用于遇到麻烦的场合中];

brush up against…偶然碰到(麻烦、困难、对手等)[由本义“碰触(门等)”引申过来];

knock up against… 偶然碰撞(路灯柱即 a lamppost 等),偶然碰见(老师等);

rub up against…(他)偶然碰擦(一些未干的油漆即 some wet paint),(在聚会上我)偶然遇到(一些名人)[都用过去时];

run up against…(他)跑步撞着(玻璃门,并且撞伤了头部即 and hurt his head),(她)碰到(老师、麻烦或强大的竞争)等

二十七、介词 up 作“沿着…往上、沿着…过去、向(或在)…的较高处”用时的动词短语举例

climb up… 沿着(山)或顺着(树)往上爬,(旧车)沿着(道路)往上爬行;

sail up the river(船等)往上游航行;

Sail up the wind(我们)逆风航行;

go (或 walk, stride, set out, travel)up the hill 往山上去(或走、大步走、出发、旅游);

take sb. right up the top of the hill 将某人一直带到山顶[这里 up 作“到”讲。又如:<英口> go up the West End 到(伦敦)西区去];

be built somewhere up…(坝等)建立在(河流)上游某处;

be up…(猫等)在(树)上,(办公室)在楼上[后接 the stairs];

pace up and down the room 在房间里来回踱步[用进行时,up 和 downs 均为介词];

pace up and down 来回踱步[副词];

He has had his ups and downs in his life. 他一生中经历不少甜酸苦辣。[名词。] go up…(烟)顺着(烟囱即 the chimney)冒出,(某人)正沿(街)走去[用进行时态];

carry sth. up the stairs behind sb. (我)提着某物(如箱子)跟在某人后面上楼,travel up North China 到(或上)华北旅行等。

含 up 的动词短语用法较为复杂. 若按其本义并用形象思维和逻辑思维去理解它们,然后分类理解背涌,会产生一定的语感。随着时间的推移以及你词汇量的增加,你对含 up 的短语的体会将越来越深。

Way 的主要用法及注意点

一、名词 way 作“道路”、“路程”讲

He is on the way to Beijing. 他正在去北京的途中。

注:way 后表示趋向地点的介词短语或副词常作 way 的定语,上句中 to Beijing 即作 way 的定语。而在 She is on the way home 中,副词 home 作 way 的定语。该句可译为:她正在回家途中。

This is a way where by (=by which) we may succeed. 这是一条我们可获得成功的途径。(where by 引出定语从句。)

Shanghai Metro Route 2 is a long way away form our university. 上海地铁二线离我校很远。(斜体字作 away 的状语。)

We shall go the same way. 我们将走同一条路。(状语)

a. The children often get in the way during the vacation。小孩在假期常挡道碍事。(同上)

b. Don't stand in the way of the teacher. 别妨碍老师。(状语)

二、名词 way 作“方法”、“方式”讲

There are several ways to reduce this equation. 有几种解这个方程式的方法(ways 后有不定式短语作后置定语。)

This is the right way of doing a thing. 这是办事的正确方法。(表语。也可改为“…way to do a thing”。)

We must overfulfill our task in all kinds of ways(或 in any way). 我们必须用各种方法(或想方设法)超额完成任务。

You can do it (in) your own way(或(in)another way. 你可以按你的方法(或按另外一种方法)做这件事。(注意 in 可省略。)

We want to know the way (in which) you learn new words. 我们想要知道你学习新单词的方法。(定语从句)

注:in… way 作行为方法状语用(当“按……方式”讲)时,in 常可省略(见上面第 5 句)。此外,当有一个定语从句说明前面的 way,而定语从句中的关联词是 in which 时,即在从句内也作行为方法状语用时,in which 常可省略(见第 5 句)。

三、名词 way 作“方面”讲

This method is successful in some ways. 这种方法在某些方面是成功的。

He is quite right in a way. 在某一方面他是很对的。

Man has learnt to make fire meet his need in various ways. 人类已学会用火来满足人的各方面需要。(斜体字部分作 need 的定语,也有人分析为状语。make 作“使得”讲,meet… 作宾语补语。本句未按原文结构翻译。)

Network computers are used in many ways. 网络计算机用于许多方面。

注:必须注意逻辑判断,如下句中 in many ways 仍作“用许多方法”讲:

The composition of a gas, liquid or solid mixture may be expressed in many ways. 气体、液体或固体混合物的组成可用许多方法表示。

四、科技英语中常见的带 way 的词组

We shall learn the truth by the way of making inquiries. 我们将进行调查以求了解真相。

We shall develop the high technology industries in a planned way (或 in a big way). 我们将有计划地(或大规模地)发展高科技产业。

In the same way, electric energy can be turned into mechanical energy. 同样地,电能可转变为机械能。

A thermometer can tell us the temperature of the water, but in no way does it show the amount of heat the water contains. 温度计能告诉我们水的温度,但它无法显示水所含有的热量。(由于含有否定意义的状语 in no way 在句首,使主、谓语颠倒词序。)

Most of the energy man uses comes from the sun by way of the materials which plants build up in photosynthesis. 人类使用的大部分能量来自太阳,这是靠(或经由)植物在光合作用下产生的物质而取得的。

He saw the situation differently from the way (in which) I saw. 他用和我不同的眼光来看这个情况。

Don't stand in the way. 别站着挡道。

What 的用法和判别

一、what 作“什么”、“什么东西(或事情)”、“怎样的人(指职业)”等讲

What is on the plate? 盘子上放着什么东西?

What are in the sky? 天空有些什么东西?(当心中有数,指复数名词而言时,在提问中就可用谓语的复数形式。若心中无数,一般用谓语的第三人称单数形式来提问。)

What produces heat? 什么东西产生热?

What happened to him? 他发生什么事了?

a. What is she, a nurse or a teacher? 她是干什么的,是护士还是教师?(不能用 which 代替。)

b. Which is your teacher, she or he? 哪一个是你的老师,是她还是他?(不能用 what 代替,因为本句不是提问她的职业是什么。)

What are three and three? 三加三是多少?

What is the weather (或 the room 等) like? 天气(或这房间等)怎样?

二、what 作“什么的”、“什么样的”讲,后面直接接名词单复数均可

What computers have you ever used? 你使用过什么样的计算机?

He doesn't know what beeper he should buy. 他不知道他应该买什么样的寻呼机。

(At) What time will you go to the net friend club? 你何时去网友俱乐部?

三、what 仍作“什么”或“什么样的”解,可引出主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句等名词性从句

What knowledge property right means is not known to all of us. 知识产权是什么,并不是我们大家都知道。(主语从句)

The question is what step we should take next. 问题是下一步我们该采取什么措施。(表语从句)

He knows what heat is. 他知道热是什么。(宾语从句)

We know what we are working for. 我们知道为了什么而工作。(宾语从句)

We are thinking of what we should do next. 我们在想下一步该做什么。(介词的宾语从句)

This portable phone is not worth what I paid yesterday. 这架移动电话不值我昨天付的价钱。(worth 的宾语从句)

四、what 相当于 that which 或 the thing (或 things) that (或 which) 的意思,也可引出主语从句、宾语从句和表语从句

What (= The thing that) has been said above is very important. 以上所说的(事情)是很重要的。(主语从句)

This is not what (= the thing which) I meant. 这不是我的本意。(表语从句)

We can and we will do what (=the thing which) we long to do. We will be what we desire to be. 我们能够而且决心做自己想做的事。我们要做自己理想中的人。(前一句中 what 从句为宾语从句,后一句中 what 从句为表语从句。)

There is some truth in what (= the thing that) he has just said. 他刚才讲的多少有点道理。(介词的宾语从句)

This factory is different from what it was be fore. 这个工厂和它原先样子不同。(介词的宾语从句。what 在从句中作表语。)

The output of our multistate corporation is now three times what it was three years ago. 我们的跨国公司目前的产量是三年前的三倍。(what 从句是表语从句,顶一个名词,而 three times 为定语,修饰这个“名词”。)

We have made the factory what it is today. 我们已使工厂变成今天这样的规模。(what 从句在句中作宾语补语。)

What is it you don't like about winter weather? 你不喜欢冬天天气的哪一点呢?(句中 what 作表语,it 后省略了that. 本句为 "it is… that" 强调结构的疑问句形式。)

Gravity is what makes you weigh what you weigh. 地心吸力使你秤得你现有的重量。(第一个 what 引出表语从句,而第二个 what 从句则作宾语补语 weigh 的状语。)

The modern conception of computers is not what it used to be in the past thirty years. 计算机的现代概念已不是过去 30 年的那种概念了。

五、what 作定语,却无疑问词含意,而表示 as much (或 many) as 或 any (或 all)… that 之意

We will give him what support I can. = I will give him as much support as I can. 我们将尽我的能力支持他。(can 后省略 give.)

Please show him what pictures (或 all the pictures) that you have taken. 请将你拍的全部照片拿给他看。(what 还可用 what ever pictures 代替,后者表示“无论什么样的照片”。)

She may operate what computers there are left in the room. 凡属本房间内的计算机她都可以操作。

Please lend me what(或 whatever)reference books you have on this subject. 请借给我你所有的有关这个课题的参考书。

注 1:注意“what + few 或 little + 名词”结构,这时表示“少”的意思。例如:

1)What few friends I have here have been very kind to him. 这里的朋友待他好的太少了!

2)What little milk she has poured in the glass. 她倒入玻璃杯里的牛奶太少了!

六、what 作感叹词用,修饰可数名词单数时,必须用不定冠词

What a wide foot bridge it is! 这是座多么宽的步行桥啊!

What a beautiful house she lives in! 她住的房子多么漂亮啊!

What a long way from Beijing to Shanghai! 从北京到上海是一条多么长的路程啊!

What wonderful new-type multimedia computers the scientists can invent! 科学家能发明多么奇妙的新型的多媒体计算机啊!

七、what 可引出比较状语从句,这时 what 可用 as 来代替

We students are to the cause of world peace what (或 as) a screw is to a machine. 我们学生的作用对于世界和平事业来说,犹如一台机器上的一颗螺丝钉。

This nucleus is to the cell what Beijing is to China, and London to Britain. 细胞核对于细胞来说,犹同北京对中国以及伦敦对英国。

八、what 的常用结构

I. 可将 what you call…, what we call…, what is called…, what is known as… 等结构当作修饰语来看,形容后面跟上的名词或其词组,表示“所谓的……”之意。有时还可用 name 和 term 来代替上述结构中的 call。从词义来看,这里 what 仍作 that which 讲,为名词性从句,但从简化理解和英译汉角度考虑,把它当作修饰语来看,似乎能加速理解和翻译.

In this book you can find what is called (或 what you call) the graphic method. 在这本书里你能找到所谓的图示法。(本句内也可以用 what we call, what is termed, what you name 或 what is known as 等代替之。)

The term force is used for what is known in everyday life as a push or a pull. 术语“力”可当作日常生活中所谓的推力或拉力来用。

He is, what is called, a living dictionary. 他就是大家所称呼的“活字典”。

注:so- called 也作“所谓的”讲,多半表示贬义的语气。例如:That is the so-called civilized world. 那就是所谓的文明世界。

II. what 的其它常用词组

What ever (或 on earth, the devil, the hell) are you talking about? 你们究竟在谈论什么啊?

What if he does not come?(如果)他不来怎么办?

Come what will (或 may), I am prepared for it. 不管发生什么事,我为此做好了准备。

We usually think of metals as solid objects, but what about mercury, which is a common metal? 我们通常把金属看作固体,但对于常见的金属汞怎么说呢?

What about going abroad now? 现在去国外怎样?(本句 what about 后用动名词短语,故与前句用法不同。但这两句都是省略句形式。)

What else will he do in the workshop? 他在车间里还将做什么呢?(what else 原义为“还有什么”。)

What with teaching and what with writing, his time is wholly taken up. 一则由于授课,再则由于写作,他的时间全被占了。

What through the weather and what through the heavy load on board, the ship was late in getting to port. 一方面由于天气不好,一方面由于负载过重,船抵港口迟了。

What is that for? 那是为了什么?

Not a student but what studies a foreign language. 没有一个学生是不学一门外语的。(but what 表示后面句子是否定意思。详阅第 30 节、六。)

What is more, he is not a hard student. 更为甚者,他不是一个用功的学生。(what is more 作插入句用。)

She is a good scholar, and what is better, a good teacher. 她是一位优秀的学者,而且是一位好老师。(句中what is better 作插入句用。译为“而且”是意译,不等于作连词用。)

The rules must be few, and, what is more important, comprehensive. 规则宜简,更重要的是概括性大。

What was (still) worse, it began to blow hard. (更)糟糕的是,开始刮起了大风。(what was still worse 作插入句用。)

Plastics can be made into machine parts, radio elements, tubes, tools, and what not. 塑料能制成机器零件、无线电元件、管件、工具以及其它等。

九、what 用法判别

I. 句末出现问号,句首的 what 一般作疑问词用。what 后面有它所修饰的名词,则作“什么的”、“什么样的”讲。what 没有它所修饰的名词,则一般作“什么“、“什么东西(或事情)”讲。但句末出现介词 like,则该词组作“怎么样的”讲(见本节、一 第 7 句)。

II. 句末出现惊叹号,句首 what 一般作“多么”讲。

III. what 从句的判别可按下列方式进行:若在主从复合句中去掉 what 引导的从句后,主句就缺少某个成分, what 从句就顶那个成分用,于是可确定 what 引导的是主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句或介词宾语从句了。

Ⅳ. what 从句作主语从句时,其谓语用单数还是复数,要由主语从句的意思来选定。例如:

What he said is quite correct. 他说的话很正确。

What he gave me are a personal computer and an electronic dictionary. 他给我的东西是一台个人计算机和一本电子辞典。

Ⅴ. 句末没有问号或惊叹号时,what 作疑问词用还是作“…the thing(或 things)which…”讲,就要结合具体句子进行比较,取其中符合逻辑的一种译法。例如:

These are what he left here. 这些就是他留下的东西。(把 what 译为“什么”就不妥。)

Time factor is what we have to take into consideration。时间因素是我们应该考虑的(把 what 译为“什么”就不妥。)

Ⅵ. what 从句综合用例:

I am doing to others what he would have others do to me. 我正在为别人做他愿使别人为我做的事。(句中 what he would… 到句末为 doing 的宾语从句,to others 为 doing 的状语。)

He doesn't care what people said about him. 他不关心人们议论他什么。

It is not a question how much a man knows, but what use he can make of what he knows; not a question of what he has acquired, and how he has been trained, but of what he is, and what he can do. 问题不在于一个人知道多少,而在于他能如何运用他的知识的程度;问题不在于他学到什么知识,受过何种教育,而在于他的人品及其能力。(句中 it 为形式主语,how much a man knows 为主语从句,通过 but 连接并列的主语从句。分号后省略 it is. of 后的从句what he has acquired 为介词宾语,实际上是和 of 一起,作 question 的定语。and 连接一从句 how he has been trained, 是和前面的 what he has acquired 并列的。第二个 but 后的 of 是和前面分号后的 of 是并列的,通过最后一个 and 将最后一个 of 后面的两个并列的介词宾语从句连接起来。)

When 的用法和判别

一、when 作“什么时候”讲,当疑问词用

When did you buy the stocks and bonds? 你何时买的这些股票和债券?

He doesn't know when to get online. 他不知何时上网。

From when did our paging business begin to grow rapidly? 我们的寻呼(机)业务从何时起开始迅速发展?

Since when have you been ill?你从何时起生病的?(说话时你病尚未痊愈。但上面第 3 句只侧重从过去哪一时间开始起,不联系今天的现状,故谓语用一般过去时。)

注:when 在这里是介词 from 和 since 的宾语。when 作介词宾语时,还可作“那时”讲,但句义必须是没有疑问口气的。例如:That was in 1979, since when things have been better. 那是在 1979 年,而从那时以来,事情就更好了。

二、when 引导时间状语从句

When water becomes solid, we call it ice. 当水变成固体时,我们把它叫做冰。

When (或 While) working in the plant, we learned a lot from the workers. 我们在工厂劳动期间,向工人学到了许多东西。(when 后省去了与主句相同的主语及其相应的 be, 即省略了 we were。)

This kind of steel becomes very hard and very brittle when hardened. 这种钢淬火后就变得很硬很脆。(when 后省去了表示 this kind of steel is 的代词 it 和 is。)

注 1:注意 when 后用完成时,when 含义相当于 after。当 when 后用一般过去时,而主句用过去完成时,when 含义相当于 before。例如:

1)When (= After) he had sold all the newspapers, he went home. 他卖完报纸后就回家去了。(若使用 After 时,则后面也可用过去一般时 sold,因 after 词义已表明动作先后了。)

2)He had been a salesman when (或 before) he was told to be a teacher. 叫他当教师之前,他当过营业员。

注 2:when 引出的时间状语从句不使用将来时和过去将来时及相应的将来或过去将来完成时。这时靠主句用将来时或过去将来时,而从句用现在时或过去完成时来表示。例如:

1)When once (或 Once) he understands, he will forgive everything. 一旦他明白过来,他会原谅一切的。

2)I will return you the book when I have read it through. 我看完这本书后还给你。

3)He said that he would be able to see you when he had written that letter. 他说,他写完那封信以后就能去看你。

三、when引出名词从句

I didn't know when (=what time) it was. 那时我不知道是什么时候。

When all the students can operate computers is an important problem. 何时所有的学生都会操作计算机是一个重要的问题。(主语从句)

What we want to know is when they can design a new-type IP phone. 我们要知道的是他们何时能设计出新型网络电话。(表语从句)

Next week will be when it would be most convenient to do this experiment. 下周将是做这个实验最方便的时间。(表语从句。若用 the time when 代替 when,则 when 引出的是 time 的定语从句。两句结构不同,但意思相同。)

She remember (the days) when she was a child. 她记得她的儿提年代。(宾语从句。去掉 the days,则为宾语从句。)

I’ll certainly go to work every day next month except when I am ill. 下个月我一定每天上班,除非我生病例外。(介词宾语从句)

四、when 引导定语从句,常用来修饰前面表示时间的名词

May is the month when we are most busy. 五月是我们最忙的一个月(when 引导的定语从句修饰 the month。)

We all look forward to the day when the scientists can discover more secrets of the universe. 我们都期盼着科学工作者发现更多的宇宙秘密的那一天。(定语从句说明 the day。)

a. The event happened in the year when I came to this city. 这一事件发生在我来到这个城市的那一年。(限制性定语从句)

b. She came here in 1953, when she was only a little girl. 她于 1953 年来到这里,那时她还只是一个小姑娘。(when 引出非限制性定语从句)

注 1:必须注意,when 引导的定语从句在某些句型和某些时间状语中常可以省略不用 when。例如:

1)You may go there any time you like. 你随便什么时候都可以去那儿。

2)In two months I studied there I learned 500 English words. 在那边学习的两个月中,我学了 500 个英语单词。

注 2. 有时 when 引导的定语从句,其前面无表示时间的名词。这时要靠上下文进行逻辑判断。例如:These were photographs of Engineer Wang when he was a student。这是王工程师当大学生时的一些照片。

五、when 作“那时”讲,等于 and then。在本情况下,when 前一般有逗号,并列地连接前后两个句子

They were just about to give up the question, when suddenly they found the answer. 他们正打算搁下这个问题,而那时他们突然找到了答案。

The water in the flask boils, when you pour the cold water over it. 烧瓶內的水开了,那时你就把凉水浇于瓶上。

Trees start growing in the spring time, when the ground gets warm. 树木到春天才开始生长,那时大地逐渐暖和起来。

He was just going to speak, when the bell rang. 他正要说话时,铃响了。(未按原文结构翻译)

The planes had been planting seed for nearly a month when it began to rain. 飞机播种快一个月,天就开始下雨了。(注意 when 前有时未打逗号。)

六、when 的基本用法判别举例

a. Ask her when she will come back. 你问她什么时候回来。(句中 when 引出宾语从句。when 后面的谓语用将来时,也反过来表明 when 引导的从句不可能是时间状语从句,因为时间状语从句一般不用将来时态。)

b. Ask her when she comes back. 她回来时你就问她。(when 引导时间状语从句。)

I don't know when they will come; but when they come I shall have a talk with them. 我不知道他们何时来,但他们来时,我将找他们谈一谈。(第一个 when 引出宾语从句,而第二个 when 引出时间状语从句。)

a. We saw the film last May when it was first shown in Shanghai. 这部影片是我们在去年五月该片首次在上海放映时看到的。(定语从句)

b. We send our children to school to prepare them for the time when they will be big and will begin to work for themselves. 我们送孩子上学是为了他们日后长大开始为自己生活而工作进行准备。(定语从句)

c. The natural reaction of some people when they see a line forming is to get in it immediately—even before they know what is being sold. 有些人一看见正在排队时的自然反应是立刻上前排队——甚至在他们还不知道正在卖什么东西的时候。(时间状语从句一定语从句)

d. There are times when finely powdered fuels like coal dust and flour explode. 就有煤尘和面粉那样的细粉状的燃料发生爆炸的情况。(定语从句。times 作“时机、机会”讲。)

e. The day will come when man can fly to wherever he likes in the universe. 人能飞往宇宙中他喜欢去的任何地方的日子将要来临。(when 引导的定语从句还带一个介词 to 的宾语从句 “wherever…the universe”。从形式上看,when 从句似乎可以看作时间状语从句,但句义讲不通。这时就应考虑:英语中有时为了使句末不留几个词作谓语,而把前面主语带上的一个很长的定语从句放到句末去,以求句子结构的匀称。)

Some of the pieces thrown out when the nucleus is cracked are neutrons. 核子裂变时被扔出的片片中,有些是中子。(when 引出的时间状语从句与分词 thrown 有关,即指“核子裂变时被扔出的片片”。如果 when 引导的时间从句和主句有关,则上句中 when 引导的从句前后就得有逗号。)

When, as is usually the case, science does not give a complete answer, we must use experience and judgement. 当科学不能提供全面的答案时,而这种情况还是常有的事,这时我们就必须使用经验和判断。(as 引出的非限制性定语从句是属于 when 引出的时间状语从句范围内的。)

a. When (he was) reading the book, he found out some answers to this question. 在阅读这本书时,他找出了这个问题的几个答案。(when 引出的时间从句中省略了与主句相同的主语及其相应的 be 的形式。)

b. Anybody, when (it is) heated to a high enough temperature, becomes a source of light. 任何物体被加热到一个足够高的温度时,就变为光源。(同上)

注:有时 when 引出的时间状语从句省略的不是主句的主语,而是省略了无人称代词 it 或主语短语中某个有关的词。为此必须注意结合上下文进行逻辑判断。例如:

1)We will do that only when (it is) necessary. 只有在必要时我们才做那件事。(句中 it 为无人称代词。)

2)Inertia is the tendency of matter to remain at rest when at rest or to keep moving when in motion. 惯性是物质静则恒静或动则恒动的倾向性。(省略 it is,但 it 指 matter,而不是 inertia。)

3)The colour of the copper oxide changes when heated in hydrogen. 当氧化铜在氢气中加热时,其颜色就变了。(不能理解为 when 后省略了与主句相同的主语 colour。)

4)This fact is very useful when doing chemical calculations. 进行化学计算时,这个事实十分有用。(when 后省略的主语当然不会是 this fact。)

Where 的用法和判断

一、作“在哪里”、“往哪里”讲,当疑问副词用

Where did you read the data? 你在哪里阅读这些资料的?

Where did you come from? Where are you going now? 你从哪里来的?你现在到哪里去?(句中第一个 where 作介词 from 的宾语。)

Where were the cellular mobile phones made? 这些蜂窝移动电话是在哪里制造的?

Tell me where to place the electronic brains. 告诉我把电脑放到哪里。

二、where 引导地点状语从句

A white smoke forms where the gases meet. 这些气体相遇处,有一股白烟形成。

Where there is little rain, the reservoir would provide us with the water. 雨水少的地方,水库就会给我们供水。

Where there is a sound, there must be sound waves. 哪里有声音,哪里必有声波。

Go back where you came from. 你从哪里来,就回到哪里去. (本句也可改为:Go back whence you came. 只是 whence 为书面语体。)

Steel frequently is used not only in electric wires, but also where it already forms part of a structure or framework in which it is desired to carry the electric current. 钢不仅常用于电线申,而且还用于要求钢进行传电的一些结构或构架中。钢在其中已作为一个组成部分。(未按原文结构翻译)

It is colder here than where we stayed yesterday. 这里比我们昨天呆的地方冷。

三、where 引导名词从句

We don't know where he works. 我们不知道他在哪里工作。(宾语从句)

That is just where they are mistaken. 那正是他们错误所在之处。(表语从句)

Where he lives is by the side of a river. 他住的地方是在河边。(主语从句)

It is still a question at issue where we shall do the test. 在何处做这项试验还是个未解决的问题。(主语从句)

Have you any idea where he has gone? 你知道他到哪里去了?(同位语从句)

The distance to the net citizen club from where we work is only half a kilometre. 从我们工作的地方到网民俱乐部的距离仅半公里。(介词宾语从句)

四、where 引导限制性定语从句

Beijing is the place where they live. 北京是他们居住的地方。(本句也可不用 the place, 这时 where 引出表语从句。)

Air moves from (places) where the pressure is high to (places) where the pressure is low. 空气从压力高的地方往压力低的地方移动。(可看作定语从句,也可看作介词宾语从句。)

But in those days it was possible to use power only close to the spot where it was generated. 但是在那些日子里,只有在靠近发电的场所才有可能使用电力。(说明前面的 spot)

I work at the same major high-tech firm where he works. 我和他都在同一个大型高科技公司工作。

五、where 引导非限制性定语从句

We went to the industrial exhibition, where we saw a great many new-type economy cars. 我们去工业展览会了,在那里看到了许多新型经济型汽车。

China had possessed the accurate value forπ over 1,300 years before Europe, where the same value was obtained in 1855. 中国求出 π 的精确值要比欧洲早一千三百多年。欧洲是在 1855 年才求出这一数值的.

S = Vt, Where S is the distance, V the average speed, and t the time. S = Vt 式中,S——距离;V——平均速度;t——时间

Whether 的用法和判断

一、Whether 作“是否”讲,可用以引出主语从句,宾语从句,介词宾语从句,表语从句,同位语从句。有时 whether 还可用 whether… or not, whether or not… 形式来代替。

Whether the materials could stand (或 pass, bear) the test is still a question. 这些材料能否试验合格,还是一个问题。(主语从句。整句也可改写成 It is… 结构:It is still a question whether the materials could stand (或 pass, bear) the test. 还可在句末或 whether 后加 or not,而句意不变。)

Whether they do it or not matters little (或 much) to us. 他们是否做这件事,对我们关系不大(或…对我们事关紧要。)(主语从句)

Air is very important: without air, neither man, animals, nor plants can live. Just as important is whether the air is clean or polluted. 空气十分重要,因为没有空气,人、动植物都不能生存。空气干净还是受污染,也正是同样十分重要的。(注意 whether 引出的主语从句位于句末。)

We don't know whether (或 if) it is right. 我们不知道这是否对。(宾语从句)

They have not decided whether they should repair the used car or whether they should buy a new-type car. 他们尚未决定,他们该修理这辆旧车,还是该买一种新型汽车。(宾语从句)

So far there has been no news about whether they have arrived in Paris. 到目前为止,他们是否到达巴黎,还没有消息. (介词宾语从句)

We put it to you whether (或 if) that is the best solution of (或 to) the problem. 我们向你提出,那究竟是不是解决问题的最好办法。(it 是先行宾语。而 whether 或 if 引出宾语从句。)

注:只有当 whether 和 if 作“是否”讲,并引出宾语从句时才可以互换。但用 whether 时,正反两面的选择意义较强;用 if 时,则比较强调单方面。如果从句内用上 or not 之类的词,则只能用 whether,而不能用 if 代替 whether, 因为 whether 强调两方面的选择,故后面常用 or, 而 if 只表示单方面的选择。试比较下列两句:

1)He asked me if he could attend Fortune Global Forum. 他问了我,他可不可以参加世界财富论壇。(暗示他很想来。)

2)He asked me whether he should come (or not). 他问我,他是否应该来。(暗示“他个人对来不来是无所谓的”。)

The question is whether (or not) we should think highly of this economist. 问题在于我们是否应该看重这位经济学家。(表语从句)

What he wants to know is whether the computer is in good order. 他想知道的事是这台计算机是否处于正常状况。(表语从句)

二、whether 引导同位语从句

Let us go through the problem whether we can take these measures for the time being. 让我们讨论一下(我们)暂时能否采取这些措施的问题。

She is in doubt whether she accepts your advice. 是否该接受你的劝告她犹豫不决。

They asked him the question whether an electric current can be produced by magnetism. 他们问了他关于电流能否由磁力产生的问题。

三、whether 引导让步从句(从句内成分省略情况参阅第 145 节)

These working conditions are applicable whether the product is pure or not. 不管产物是否纯,这些操作条件总是可以采用的。

All substances, whether they are(或 may be)gaseous, liquid or solid, are made up of atoms。所有物质,不论它们是气体、液体或固体,都由原子组成。(=All substances, be they gases, liquids or solids, are…)

Whether he succeeds (或 may succeed) or fails (或 may fail), we should help him to do it. 不管他成败如何,我们都必须帮助他做这件事。

注:在 whether 引出的让步状语从句内,常用动词原形作谓语,尤以 be 为比较常见。例如上面第 2、3 句。

Whether or not the figures are accurate, we have to recheck them. 不管那些数字是否准确,我们必须重新核对。

Whether (it is) light or heavy, every object has its volume. 每个物体,不论轻重,都有其体积。

四、whether 和 if 的用法判别

Ⅰ. If 作“是否”讲,引导的从句就是宾语从句,一般都在主句之后。如果 if 从句在句首,或者虽在主句之后,但主句中并不缺少宾语,并且句意完整,则这时 if 作“如果”讲,引导的是条件从句。

No one knows if he can come into the nuclear power station. 没人知道他是否能进入核电站。(宾语从句)

If they have discussed the problem, really I don't know. 他们是否讨论了这个问题,我真的不知道. (If 引出宾语从句,因强调才提前,后面主句谓语正好缺宾语。)

If he comes here, tell him about it. 如果他来,就把这事告诉他。(条件从句)

We shall drop in to see her, if we have time. 如果我们有时间,我们就顺便看望她。(条件从句)

II. 主句中不缺少主语、宾语或表语,则 whether 引导的为让步从句:

The chemical composition of water is H2O whether it is solid, liquid, or water vapor. 不管水是固、液或汽态,它的化学组成都是H2O。

III. 在 whether 之前有 fact(事实)、idea(想法)、question(问题)等名词,在 whether 之前又没有逗号,这时 whether 引导的从句多半是同位语从句。

Ⅳ. whether or not 引导名词从句时,作“是否”讲;单独使用 whether or no(或 not)时,作“无论如何”、“不管怎样”讲。

Whether or not they designed this kind of video telephone set, I don't know. 他们是否设计过这种可视电话机,我不知道。

I should do it, whether or no. 无论如何我应该做这件事。

Ⅴ. 让步从句省略 whether 时,谓语用原形动词(一般为 be),主语、谓语颠倒。

All magnets behave the same, be they large or small.(…the same whether (they are) large or small.) 所有磁体,不论大小,其性质都一样。(意译)

Be it so, we must continue to do the best. 纵然如此,我们仍得继续全力以赴。

Which 的用法和判断

一、which 的基本用法

Ⅰ. which 作“哪一个”、“哪些”讲,当定语,用于疑问句和名词从句:

Which way can we carry out this test, this one or that one?我们能用哪种方法进行这个试验,这种还是那种方法?

There are many types of pagers in the shop. I don't know which one you like best. 商店里有许多寻呼机,我不知道你最喜欢哪一种型式。(which 引出宾语从句。)

He is worried about which English, British or American, he should teach. 他为教哪种英语——英国英语还是美国英语——而躁急。(介词宾语从句)

Under which conditions the machines work is an important question. 这些机器在哪些条件下操作是一个重要问题。(主语从句)

What we want to know is which computers sell well in the retail business. 我们想知道的是哪些计算机在零售中畅销。(表语从句)

II. 作“哪一个”、“哪些个”讲,作疑问代词用,用于疑问句和名词从句:

Which works better, this or that one? 哪台操作较好,这台还是那台?

Which of you will go with us? 你们中间哪一个(或哪些人)同我们一起走?

Tell us which of you are going. 告诉我们,你们哪些人要走。(宾语从句)

The choice of a production process depends on which of the products you want to obtain. 生产过程的选择取决于你想要获得其中哪个产品。(介词宾语从句)

III. which 作关系代词用,专指事物而言:

A. which 用于限制性定语从句中:

The machine which we are designing is a new-type drilling machine. 我们正在设计的那台机器是一台新型钻机。(which 在从句中作宾语用,并且还可省略。)

《Computers》is a subject with which all the students have to be familiar. 《计算机》是一门所有学生都得熟悉的一门课程。(介词也可置于句末。)

The door of which you lost the key cannot be opened. 你丢失钥匙的那扇门开不了。(which 作介词 of 的宾语,但该介词短语又作 key 的定语。)

He will become the man which his parents want him to be. 他将成为他的家长所期望的那种人。

注:which 用于定语从句中一般指物。但当 which 在定语从句内作表语或宾语补语时,也可指人。如上句 4 和下面 B 项中第 5 句即是,不宜用 who 或 whom 代替。

Neither rain nor snow nor sleet keeps the postman from delivering our letters which we so much look forward to receiving. 雨、雪、冰雹都没使邮递员中断投递我们迫切盼望收到的信件。(句中 which 是句末动名词 receiving 的宾语。)

B. which 用于非限制性定语从句中,这时which前有逗号。

(a) which 代替主句中某个词或词组,并对它进行补充说明:

The meeting, which was held at our university, was a success. 那个会是在我校开的,获得了成功.

试比较下列限制性定语从句:

The sports-meeting which was held at our university was a success. 那次在我校开的运动会获得了成功。

Air is a mixture of gases, of which oxygen forms 21 percent by volume. 空气是一种气体混合物,在该混合物中氧气按体积计占 21%。(which 在非限制性定语从句中作 of 的宾语。)

She lived together with me last year, during which time she helped me with my lessons. 她去年和我住在一起,在这期间她帮助我学习功课。(which 在从句中作 time 的定语,然后 which time 作介词 during 的宾语。)

She is a good chemistry teacher, which indeed she is. 她是一位好的化学老师,实际上她确实如此。(which 在从句中作表语。)

He was surprised at the news, which I was not. 他对那消息感到惊讶,而我不惊讶。

But Edison had very little power in the great new company, which would never have been started without his invention. 但是爱迪生在这家新的大公司内没有什么权力,虽然这家公司没有他的发明就根本不能开业。(后面从句含有让步的意思。)

I had asked him to show me the IP phone, which he did. 我请他让我看看那台网络电话,而他就给我看了。(which 表示主句中 "to show…" 的内容。)根据上述例句不难看出,非限制性定语从句由于是作补充说明的,常分译为妥。

(b) which 代表主句中谓语的整个概念:

He can write a letter in English, which I cannot. 他能用英文写信,而我不能(which 代替 write a letter in English)

Metal will bear beating with a hammer, which a stone will not. 金属能经受住锤子的锤打,但石头不能。(which 代替 bear beating with a hammer.)

When deeply absorbed in work, which he often was, he would forget all other things. 他常常地聚精会神地工作,那时他常把其它所有事都忘了。

(which 代替 when 引出的时间状语从句中的谓语一部分“deeply absorbed in work”,而时间从句中省略了 he was。would 表示过去多次动作。本句未按原文结构翻译。)

(c) which 代表主句整个意思。若 which 在从句中作主语,其谓语为第三人称单数。which 有时代替主句中的某部分内容。例如:

She is very fond of her daughter, Emily, which is natural. 她非常爱她的女儿埃米莉,这是很自然的。(which 代表整个主句意思。)

Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation. 液态水变为蒸汽,这就叫做蒸发。(同上)

a. The refrigerator may be out of order, in which case it will be repaired at once. 冰箱可能发生故障。在本情况下要立即予以修理。(which 代替主句整个意思,但在句中作 case 的定语。)

b. It is suspected that cancer may be a virus, in which case it can be treated by a vaccine. 人们猜疑癌可能是一种病毒,如果这样,就可用一种疫苗来治疗。(which 仅代表主句中的主语从句的内容。)

a. While he was in the army, he learned English, which helped him a lot in his work here. 当他在军队时学了英语,这对他在这里的工作有很大帮助。(which 代表前面主从复合句内容。)

b. When he finds it hard to fall asleep, he starts worrying about his inability to sleep, which increases his insomnia, which increases his worries, which…. 当他发觉难于入睡时,就开始为不能睡眠而急躁,而急躁加重了失眠,失眠又加重了急躁…。(三个 which 代表各自前面的有关词语。)

C. 关系代词 which 用于不定式短语中,而该不定式短语作前面名词的后置定语。注意这个 which 一般是介词宾语,还常可省略。

There is no key with which to open the door. = There is no key to open the door with. 没有能打开这扇门的钥匙。

He must have some time in which to make the necessary preparations. 他一定要有一些时间来作些必要的准备。(句中 in which 还可省略。)

She reached Tianjin and decided it would be a good city in which to sell materials for building houses. 她到达天津并认定这是个适于销售建房材料的好城市。

二、判别 which 用法时注意事项

Ⅰ. which 或带 which 的介词短语前面有逗号的,则后面的定语从句为非限制性定语从句(见本节、III. B 各例句)。

II. 根据从句谓语的单复数和逻辑意义,来判断 which(在从句中作主语)同主句中哪个词或词组有关,是否代表主句整个意思。例如:

It was the discovery of definite facts like this about electricity which make it possible to build all sorts of electric instruments and machinery. 这是电方面与此类似的某些事实的发现,这些事实使各种电气仪表和机械的制造成为可能。(由于定语从句中谓语用 make, 表明 which 系指复数名词而言,故 which 不可能代替 electricity 或 discovery,只能说明复数名词 facts,而在逻辑上也讲得通。)

A calorie is the quantity of heat or energy which is necessary to raise the temperature of water from 15℃ to 16℃. 一卡就是把一克水的温度从 15℃ 提高到 16℃ 所需要的热量或能量。(which 后用 is,故只与前面单数名词有关。再从逻辑意义上考虑,which 代表 the quantity of heat or energy,而不是仅仅说明 heat 或 energy 的。)

Rubber is a light, elastic, durable and water-resistant material, which make rubber industry very important. 橡胶是一种质轻、富有弹性、经久耐用和防水的材料,因此(原意为“这就使得”)橡胶工业十分重要。(which 前有逗号,引出非限制性定语从句。从句谓语用 makes(单数第三人称), which 可能代替前面的 material 或整个词组 a light… material,但也可能代表主句整个意思。语法分析这里已无能为力,只能从逻辑意义来进行判断。从意义上考虑,which 代表主句整个意思为宜。)

If the water is heated, the particles move quickly, which agrees with our theory. 如果把水加热,粒子运动就更快,这一现象是和我们的理论符合的。(同上)

Induction is a method of charging a conductor from a charged object which does not require bringing the two into contact. 电感应是带电物体对导体充电的方法,它并不要求这两个物体接触。(which 不代表靠近的 a charged object, a conductor 或 charging a conductor, 而代表 a method of… object 整个短语。必须进行逻辑判断。)

Some elements are known the atoms of which usually do not combine with more than one atom of any other element. 某些元素是众所周知的,它们的原子通常不能同任何其它元素的一个以上的原子相化合。(which 跨过主句谓语说明前面的主句主语 some elements,这种定语从句叫做“分裂式定语从句”,目的在于避免使带有定语从句的主语太长,从而导致“头重脚轻”。)

III. 注意对“介词+ which”的用法。

Work is the product of a force and a distance through which it acts. 功是力和在这个力作用下经过的距离的乘积。(it 是指“力”而言,故 which 只能代替前面的 a distance。)

Inertia is that property of matter because of which a force must be exerted on a body in order to accelerate it. 惯性是物质的一种性质,由于具有那种性质,要使物体加速,就必须对物体施加力。

注:在限制性定语从句内不仅作宾语的关系代词 which 可以省略,有时作介词宾语的 which,当其有关介词挪到定语从句句末时,也可省略。例如:

1)Air will completely fill any container (which) it may be placed in. 空气将完全填满可以在其内放入空气的任何容器。

2)They studied different types of air conditioners (which) we were making use of. 当时他们研究了我们正在使用的各种型式的空调器。

Ⅳ. 注意作定语的不定式短语中,介词省略了作其宾语的关系代词 which(详见本节、一、I. C)。

Ⅴ. 在修饰 distance, time 的限制性定语从句内,作状语的关系代词 which 也可省略。详见第 145 节、七。

The amount of work is equal to the product of a force by the distance (which) the body is moved in the direction of the force. 功的数值等于力和物体沿着力方向移动距离的乘积。

M is the number of times (which) X is as great as Y. M 等于 X 相当于 Y 的倍数。

Ⅵ. 注意在修饰 direction(方向)和 way(方法,途径)的限制性定语从句内,当以 in which 出现时,常常把 in which 省略。例如:

We can change the direction (in which) a force is acting. 一个力的作用方向我们是可以改变的。

The way (in which) this material can be used depends on its properties. 使该物质能得到应用的方法取决于该物质的性质。

Ⅶ. 当主句用“介词+名词”表示地点时,不要用“介词 + which”引出定语从句,而要用 where 引出定语从句。若该名词前无介词,则后面定语从句用“介词 + which”或 where 均可。例如:

The offices, laboratories, and museum are situated at the top of the hill where they command a fine view. 这些办公室、实验室和博物馆都位于山顶上,在这里可俯瞰美丽景色。

That was the town where (或 in which)he was born. 那是他出生的城镇。

While 的基本用法及判别

一、while 的基本用法

Ⅰ. while 作“(正)当……时候”讲,连接一个时间状语从句。用 while 连接的时间状语从句表示主句和从句中的动作同时发生,并且还表示从句的动作比主句的动作要长。主句动作开始时,从句的动作早已开始发生。

We can still hear sounds while our heads are under water. 当我们的头埋入水下时,我们仍能听到声音。

You can tell me your opinion while we are eating. 你可以在我们吃饭时把你的意见告诉我。

注:while 引出时间状语从句时,可省略与主句相同的主语和相应的 be。例如:

1)While (we were) operating the machine tools, we were very careful. 操纵机床时,我们非常小心。

2)Water is getting hotter and hotter while (it is) heated. 水被加热时就变得越来越热。

II. 用 while 表示同时存在的两种事物的对比,引出并列分句,有时甚至是两个独立分词结构。

Some substances are soluble, while others are not. 有些物质是可溶的,而另一些物质则不是。

While energy is the capacity to do work, power is the quantity of work done in unit time. 能是作功的本领,而功率则是单位时间内所作的功的数量。

Solids vary greatly in resistance, some being very good conductors, while others being insulators. 固体电阻变化大,有些是良导体,而有些是绝缘体。

Some experiments are difficult while others are easy. 有些实验是难的,而其它一些实验是容易的。

注:while 引出的并列分句在后面时,while 前一般打逗号,但也有不打逗号的,如上面最后一句。

III. while 表示“虽然”、“尽管”,引出让步从句。这只能根据上下文判别。

While part of the heat can be converted back to mechanical work, it is never possible to recover all of it. 虽然部分热量能够变回为机械功,但它永远不可能全部复原了。(如果将 While 引出的从句译成时间状语从句(正当……时候)或译成表示对比的关系(……而……),都不如译成让步意义(虽然……)为宜,因此就可推断 While 引导具有让步意义的从句。)

While the practical contributions of probability theory are undisputed, few theories have created such a philosophical controversy. 尽管概率理论的实际贡献是无可争辩的,但极少理论象它那样引起这样的争论。

The PV product, while (it is) nearly constant at a given temperature, does vary somewhat with the pressure. 尽管 PV 乘积在给定的温度下几乎恒定不变,但它确实随压力而略有变化。

Ⅳ. while 作名词用,表示“(一段)时间”的含义。

Having thought for a while, he agreed to take this work. 他想了一会儿,同意承担这项工作.

The test will be carried out in a little while. 该试验即将进行。

Ⅴ. while 的其它常用词组

It is worth while to read the book. 很值得读这本书。(句中 while 为名词,作形容词 worth 的宾语。也可写成:The book is worth reading. 注意不能用 being read 代替 reading。还可说:we are worth reading the book. 我们值得去读这本书。)

It is worth while pointing out that heating may bring about certain changes in the structure of any material. 值得指出的是,加热可以使任何材料的结构发生某些变化。

The computers should be checked up once in while. 这些计算机应该不时地进行检查。

二、while 和 when 引导时间状语从句和并列分句时的差别

while 引导的时间状语从句和其主句的动作必是同时发生,并且从句的动作开始得早,还一直持续进行。但是 when 引导的时间状语从句知其主句的动作可能同时发生,也可能相继发生。不是同时发生的动作,就不能用 while。 when 引导并列分句必须位于句末,动作发生在前一分句的动作之后。while 引导并列分句,其位置可前可后,两个分句的动作同时发生。例如:

When I came here, he had done his experiment. 当我来这里时,他已把实验做完了(他做完实验在先。不能用 while 代替 when。)

There will be a meeting tomorrow, when he will express his new view a on these subjects. 明天有会,那时他将就这些课题表示自己的新看法。(“他发表自己的新看法”在后。不能用 while 代替 when。这里 when 引出并列分句,其意思相当于and then。)

In general, metals are good conductors, while nonmetals are insulators. 一般 K 来说,金属是良导体,而非金属则是绝缘体。(while 引导并列分句,作“而”讲。不能用 when 代替。)

Who 和 Whom 的用法

一、疑问词 who(主格)和 whom(宾格)作“谁”等讲

Who is he? 他是谁?(若用 What 代替 Who,则句意变为问他的职业。)

a. Who is in the classroom?谁在教室里?

b)Who are in the room? 谁在房间里?(当心中有明确的复数人物概念时,也可用复数谓语提问。) 注:不清楚人数时,问句大多用单数谓语。

With whom did you talk yesterday?你昨天和谁谈了话?(在口语中还可说成:Who did you talk with yesterday?)

a. I do not know whom you saw yesterday. 我不知你昨天看见谁了。(宾语从句。在口语中还可用 who 代替 whom。)

b. We all know who we are studying for. 我们大家都知道我们为谁在学习。(也可用 for whom we are studying. )

He knows who else is (或 are) going abroad. 他知道还有谁要出国。(若指两个人以上,则用 are。)

I have consulted all the leaders here on who will go to Shanghai on business. 就谁去上海出差,我已咨询了这里所有领导的意见。(介词宾语从句)

Who delays, pays. 延误者罚款。

Dad, that is who works best in our firm. 爸爸,这是我们公司里工作最好的人。

二、关系代词 who 和 whom 用于定语从句

This is the student who repaired our radio set yesterday. 这人就是昨天修理我们无线电的那个学生。(限制性定语从句)

I am sure there is no one who works here and who is not eager to learn some English. 我确信,凡是在这里工作的人都想学些英语。(两个限制性定语从句并列)

Here is a letter from Miss Wang Ping, who studies at Beijing University. 这里有一封王萍女士来信,她现在北京大学学习。(非限制性定语从句)

Who is the man to whom you were talking when I saw you yesterday? 昨天我看见你时,你在跟他讲话的那个人是谁?(限制性定语从句) 注:在限制性定语从句中,whom 常被省略,如上面第 4 句可写为: Who is the man (whom) you were talking to when I saw you yesterday? 又如:This is the worker (whom) I met yesterday. 这是我昨天遇到的那个工人。He is no longer the boy (whom) he was before he entered the university. 他不再是上大学前的那样一个小孩了。

Dr. Ouyang, whom you in our office last week, is our general manager. 那位欧阳博士就是你上周在我办公室见过的,他是我们的总经理。(非限制性定语从句)

Jenny loves the children, for whom she is ready to do anything. 詹尼爱小孩,并乐于为他们做任何事. (非限制性定语从句)

三、who 用于 "It is… who…" 强调句型中

It is your teacher who often warns you against smoking. 经常告诫你们不要吸烟的正是你们的老师.

It was the old workers who helped us (to) repair the water pumps. 正是这些老工人帮助我们修理了水泵。

It is those who have never been to college but who are sending, or hope to send, their children to college, who are most angry at what happened in the campus. 正是那些过去从未上过大学而目前正在送其子女或希望送其子女上大学的人们才对在校园里发生的事最感到生气。(句中第一、二个 who 引出并列的定语从句,第三个 who 是强调句型中要求的who。)

四、who 和 whoever 引出从句的用法差别

I think, whoever knows the truth will tell you about it. 我想,知道真实情况的(无论什么)人都会告诉你。(不能用 who 代替。)

A wise and experienced leader will assign a job to whoever is best qualified. 一个聪明并有经验的领导一定会把工作交给最有资格做的人。(同上)

从上述两例可看出,whoever 引出的从句表示“知道真实情况的无论什么人”或“…最够格的无论什么人”,即落实到“某一类人”身上,在句中顶一个名词。whoever 用于疑问句中则作“究竟谁”讲。用于让步状语从句,则 whoever 作“无论谁”讲。例如:Whoever comes here, tell them I have gone to Tianjin. 无论谁来这里,告诉他们我已去天津了。总之,who 不具有上述三种用法。

Whose 的用法

一、疑问词 whose 作“谁的”讲

Whose book is it? 这是谁的书?

Whose are those books?那些书是谁的?

I don't know whose portable computer you are using. 我不知道你在使用谁的手提式计算机。(宾语从句)

二、引导定语从句的 whose 作“他的”、“她的”和“他们的”讲,而该从句修饰前面表示人的名词或词组

This book belongs to the man whose name is on it. 这本书属于具名于书上的那个人。(限制性定语从句)

The students whose exercise-books I showed you yesterday will be here soon. 昨天我给你看过练习本的那些学生,很快就要到这里来。(限制性定语从句)

Linda, whose house we just passed, is a senior programmer. 琳达是位高级程序员,刚才我们正从她家门口走过。(非限制性定语从句)

三、有时引导定语从句的 whose 可作“它的”、“它们的”讲,而该从句修饰前面表示事物或除人以外的动物

What is the weight of a block of aluminium whose volume is 0.4 cubic feet? 一块体积为 0.4 立方英尺的铝有多重?(限制性定语从句)

Besides the electrons, an atom also contains positive electrical particles whose total charge must be equal to that of the electrons. 除了电子以外,原子还含有电荷数和电子的电荷数必定相同的带正电的粒子。(限制性定语从句。也可分译为:…原子还含有带正电的粒子,其电荷数必定等于电子的电荷数。)

Air is a mixture, whose components are of great use in the chemical industry. 空气是一种混合物,它的组份在化学工业中大有用处。(非限制性定语从句)

The house, whose roof was blown off, has been repaired. 屋顶被刮掉的房子已经修好。(非限制性定语从句)

四、注意事项

Ⅰ. 在 whose 疑问句或以 whose 引导的名词从句中,whose 一般作“谁的”讲,见上述第一项各例句。

II. 定语从句中 whose 的含义和译法取决于它所修饰的前面的名词是指人还是物,见上面第二、三项各例句。

Why的用法

一、why 作“为什么”、“为何”讲

Why is X equal to Y? 为什么 X 等于 Y?

Why did he do that experiment once and again? 为什么他再三地做那个实验?

二、why 引导各种从句

She knows why certain elements are very much alike in properties. 她知道为什么某些元素在性质方面十分相象。(宾语从句)

Do you know the reason why there are heat losses in a steam engine? 你知道为什么蒸汽机内有热损耗吗?(句中 why 为关系副词,引出定语从句。)

It is clear now why heat can be produced by friction. 现在很清楚,为什么摩擦能产生热。(主语从句)

The question is why metals are good conductors. 问题是为什么金属是良导体。(表语从句)

Please answer the question of why acids eat in (或 eat away) metals. 请回答为什么酸腐蚀金属的问题。(介词 of 的宾语从句,连同 of 修饰 question。)

He has solved the question (of) why resistance is affected by temperature. 他解决了为什么温度影响电阻那个问题。(同位语从句)

三、注意在一定上下文中,why 后只用不带 to 的不定式动词或其短语

Why get so excited?为什么如此激动?

Why not go together with him?为何不和他一起去呢?

Oh,you look weak today. Why you not go and see the doctor?奥,你今天脸色显得虚弱。为什么不去看医生?(第二部分也可改为:Why didn't you go and see the doctor?)

Why haven't you sent him away? 为什么还没有打发他走?

Why did you become a chemistry teacher? 为何你当了一名化学教师?

Why let her come in? She well stand in the way. 为什么让她进来?她会碍事的。(第一部分有 Don't let her come in 含义。)

We should praise the girl for the reason why she studies best. 我们应该表扬这位女孩,因为她学习最好。(for the reason why 或 for the reason that 均可引出原因状语从句。)

Will 的主要用法

一、will 用于第二、三人称的单纯将来时(美国英语第一人称可用 will 代替 shall)

He will soon be able to read English. 他不久就能阅读英语。

There will be a film in our university tomorrow. 明天我们大学有电影。

It is said that she will fly to Japan next week. 据说她下周将飞往日本。

注:上句用法必须跟“主语+ is (或 are, am) + going + 不定式动词短语”区别开,因为后者用于已经作出决定或现在已经看出迹象要发生某事或某动作的场合下。例如:

1)Look-it’s going to snow. 瞧,要下雪了。

2)I am going to attend the lecture. 我准备去听讲座。

3)We’re going to fall down! 我们要摔下去了!

二、will 用于第一人称,表示“愿”、“想”、“要”之意,甚至可用于真实条件从句内

We will bring up the problem at the meeting. 我们要在这次会上提出这个问题。

I will go if you wish. 如果你希望我去,我就去。

If you will allow me, I’ll work out a plan for the immediate present. 如果你愿意的话,我将制订一个从当前着眼的计划。(注意句中 will 是情态动词,何况真实条件从句常靠其主句用将来时态来表示从句内的现在一般时具有将来一般时的含义。)

Come or go, as you will. 来去听你自愿。(句中 will 等于 wish。)

三、will 表示一种主观猜想,作“谅必”、“大概”、“将会”讲

This computer doesn't work normally. It will be the one you bought ten years ago. 这台计算机操作不正常。这大概是你十年前买的那一台吧。

This will be your beeper. 这谅必是你的寻呼机吧。

You will have heard about it. 这事你谅必已经听说了。

The task will have been completed by now. 任务此刻大概快完成了。

Lisa will have left for Beijing by now. 莉萨此刻大概已动身去北京了。

四、will 作“经常、总是”讲,表示现在惯常性的动作;有时用 will 表示必然性和不可避免性,但只用于第三人称

Whenever in trouble, we will always go to the senior engineer for help. 每当有困难时,我们总是找高工帮忙。

The computer-controlled valves will open and close at regular intervals. 这些由计算机控制的阀门会按有规律的间隔时间开闭。(简译为:…按一定的间隔…。)

whatever you may say, things of this kind will go on. 不管你说什么,这种事情必将继续进行下去。

五、“will not…”有时表示“总是不”、“说什么也不……”之意

The motor will not operate. 这台电动机总是转动不起来。

The cork of the bottle will not come out. 瓶塞(软木塞)总是弄不出来。

The door will not lock. 这扇门说什么也锁不上。

We have tried everything we could think of, but the car will not go. 我们已经用尽了能想到的各种办法,但是这辆汽车还是不能走。

六、will 和 would 类似例句比较

They will dance and sing, but they are hungry. 他们肯定会唱歌跳舞,但是现在他们肚子饿了。(若用 would 代替will,语气就婉转,不如用 will 那么肯定。)

It would be most convenient for you to come here. 这会是你来这里的最方便的时间。(语气婉和,若用 will,语气就比 would 肯定些。)

She would have sung, but she was thirsty. 她本来要唱的,但那时她口渴。(第一句用虚拟语气,表示过去未实现的动作。不能用 will 代替 would。)

She will sing unless she is hungry. 如果她肚子不饿,她一定会唱的。(若用 would 代替 will,口气就缓和,可译为:…她是会唱的。)

七、will 还可用于将来进行时,将来完成进行时(参阅目录“时态”专题有关部分)

With 的各种搭配用法及分类理解

介词 with 的基本词义为“同、跟或和…(一起)”、“具有、带有、伴有或陪衬…”、“以或用…(后接表示工具、实物等词)”、“以…方式”等。至于其它用法,例如“与…相处”、“同意、赞成、一致、符合…”、“与…联系、连接、结合、化合、混合、合作、勾结”、“与…争论、竞争、斗争、”“随身…”、“随着…”、“对于或关于…”、“由于或为了…目的”、“虽然”等意思,都是 with 短语跟有关动词搭配在一定的上下文前提下引申的用法。

一、“with + 有关名词”跟不少动词及其相应的名词连用可分別表示“同或跟…闲聊、交谈、谈判、讨论等”或“与……一起工作、居住或一起走等”

chat with sb. 跟某人闲聊;

have a long chat with sb. 跟某人进行一次长时间闲聊;

discuss with sb. 跟某人讨论;

hold(或have)a heated discussion with sb. 和某人举行(或进行)一次热烈的讨论;

negotiate with sb. For a contract 为订立个合同和某人谈判;

begin (或 open) negotiations with sb. for a contract(我们)为订立合同而开始与某人谈判;

contract with sb. 跟某人订合同;

be (或 keep) in touch (contact) with sb. 与某人接触中(或保持接触);

live (或 work) with sb. 和某人交朋友或恋爱(多年即 for years);

go with…(我们必须)跟上(时代即 the times),(房子)和(游泳池即 the swimming pool)一起出售(或出租),(金钱)和(幸福)并不总是结伴同行[go 前加 does not always];

share… with sb. 通某人分享(股票即 the stocks)等

二、“有关动词 + with…”表示“与…交往、相处关系或状态”时的用法举例

get (或 go) on (或 along) well with sb. 跟某人相处很好;

注意惊叹句用法:Get (或 Go, Come) on (with you)! ﹤口﹥去你的!我不相信!(还可用 Get away with you, Get away, Go along with you, Go along, Get off with you, Get off, Come along 来代替。)How is she getting (或 going) on (或 along) with her work (或 her new book)?她的工作(或她的新书进展如何?get well in with sb. 套近乎或巴结某人;

keep in with the leaders 一直巴结领导;

be well in with…(他)跟(经理)有交情[含贬义];

be in love with sb. (他)和某人在恋爱;

stand well with…(他)跟(经理)的关系好;

be connected with…(他)和(我的家庭即 my family)有关系;

be associated with…(体积即 the volume)与(温度)有关[也可用 be related with 或 to… 代替];

make friends with… 和(某人)交朋友;

keep friends with… 和(他)保持友好关系;

take up with…(他)跟(许多人)交往或要好,(她)对(这个错误的答案即 the wrong answer)信以为真等

三、“有关动词 + with…”表示“同意”、“一致”、“相符”、“合拍”、“相配或协调一致”时用法举例

agree with… 同意(你或你的计划);

be in agreement with sb. there(我)在那点上同意某人;

be with sb. all the way in the fight for equal rights 完全支持某人争取平等权利的斗争;

close with…(我)最后同意(售货员的出价即 the sale girl’s offer),(他们)最后彼此达成一致[with 后加 each other];

I don't hold with this plan. 我不同意这个计划。(常用于否定句或疑问句。)go with sb. on this suggestion 有关这个建议我同意某人看法;

go with…(家具即 the furniture 和(房子)相配;

go along with…(他)同意(这个计划);

comform with…(任务即 the task)和(所承担的责任即 the responsible position)相称一致;

comform… with… 使(我们的想法即 our ideas)和(当今社会即 today’s society)相适应或相符,(我们的表现即 our behavior)与(当今社会)一致;

check with the fact(这)和事实相符或一致;

consist with…(报道即 the report)符合(事实);

keep with…(这些画即 the pictures)和(家具)和谐相配;

match with…(词即 the words)和(曲即 the music)相配一致或合拍;

meet with…(他的讲话)和(我们的观点即 our viewpoint)一致;

work (vt., vi. )in with… 使(我的工作)和(他的计划)合拍,(她)和(我们)协力合作等

四、“有关动词 + with…”表示“与…联系、交际、结合、啮合、混合、混淆、化合、合并、合作、勾结、合谋”等用法举例

combine (v.) with… 将(电脑)和(电话)结合起来,(理论)结合(实践),(这个学校)和(那个学校即 that one)合并或联合,(C 即碳)跟(O2 即氧)化合;

link… with… 使(理论)联系(实践);

merge (v.) with…(使)这个公司和(那个公司即 that one)合并;

connect (v.) with…(计算机)给(我)接通(北京),(这条河)和(大海)相通,(警察局即 the police)将(他)和(罪行即 the crime)联系在一起;

corporate with…(我)同(他)合作筹建一个公司[后加 in working up a company];

engage with…(这个齿轮即 this gear)和(那个齿轮即 that one)啮合或咬合在一起;

unite (v.) with…(使)(理论)和(实践)统一或结合,(油)和(水)不相融[谓语用 doesn't…];

mix (v.) with… 将(蛋即 eggs)和(水)混合在一起,(油)和(水)不相融[谓语用 doesn't mix];

mix… up with… 将(这个词)和(那个词)混淆不清;

communicate with…(她)和(我们)交往,(这房间)与(卧室即 the bedroom)相通;

be in communication with…(他)保持和(某人)联系;

join forces with…(我们)和(他们)会师、联合;

plot with sb. (他)和某人策划反对…[后加 against…];

conspire with…(他)和(小偷即 the thief)勾结或密谋做某事[后加 todo something];

be closed with sb. 与某人密谈 等

五、“有关动词 + with…”表示“与…争论、争吵、竞争、交锋、交战、决裂、冲突、斗争、讲道理”等时用法举例

argue (或 debate) with sb. 与某人争论(或辩论);

battle (或 fight, struggle) with… 与(敌人)交战(或斗争);

break with… 跟(某人或旧的想法即 the old ideas)决裂;

conflict with…(这个会议即 this meeting)和(那个会议即 that one)有冲突;

compete with…(他)和(某人)竞争或竞赛;

engage with… 与(敌人)交锋,(机器的各个零件即 the different parts of the machine)彼此交结(或啮合);

quarrel with… 跟(某人)吵架;

reason with sb. (老师)跟(学生)讲道理→(老师)劝告(学生)等

六、在某些动词短语中“with…”作“随着…”或“一…就…”讲的用法举例

Volumes change with temperatures. 体积随温度而变。

The birds fly away With the winter. 这些鸟随冬天而飞走。

With these words he stepped down From the stage. 说完这些话他便从台上走下来。

She brought up her spoken English with the passing of the years. 随着岁月的流逝她提高了英语口语。

With day light she hurried away. 天一亮,她就匆匆离去。

He is swimming with the stream. 他正顺流而游。

Skill come with experience. 技艺随经验而来→经验越丰富,技艺就越高。

七、含 with 的动词短语表示“赶上…,与…保持同步、同等对比、对比、对照”等时的用法举例

catch (或 get) up with… 赶上(某人或公共汽车),赶上(先进的水平即 the advanced level);

come up with… 赶上(某人),(她)提出(一个建议)[由“带着一个建议走上前来”引申过来];

keep up with… 保持跟上(其他学生或时代即 the times);

keep step(或 pace)with… 与(时代或某人)同步或并驾齐驱;

remain the level with the other players(他)和其他运动员保持同等水平;

stay (或 stick) with…(我们)和(他们)保持相等水平,(他)继续使用(这种方法);

class sb. with the best scientists of the age 将某人列入当代第一流科学家;

rank with the best writers(他)进入最优秀作家行列[由“与…并列”引申过来];

rate (v.) with…(使)(我们的火车)列入(最快的火车);

sing with the best of them 她唱歌可与他们中间的最佳歌唱家相媲美[由“与最佳歌唱家同台演唱”引申过来];

compare (v.) with…(使)(这台电脑)和那台比较;

contrast (v.) with…(使)(善即 good)和(恶即 evil)作对比;

English is easier in contrast (或 comparison) with Chinese. 与汉语相比,英语较为容易。

八、“有关动词 + with…”作“处理、应付、对付、将就过去、容忍、耐心、面临”讲时用法举例

cope with… 应付(许多任务即 a lot of tasks),(我们能)对付(某人);

deal with… 处理(困难),处罚(某人),公正对待(某人)[后加 justly],跟(这家银行)打交道;

What have you done with…?你对(这个顽皮小孩即 the naughty child)作了什么处理或你把(我的书)弄到哪里去了?If he can't get any water, what will he have to do with?如果他搞不到水,那么他将不得不用什么来将就过去(或凑付一下)呢?can't do with…(我)无法容忍(那么大的闹声即 so much noise);

manage with…(他)用(旧的机器)来对付(或将就)过去;

can't bear (或 put up) with… 不能容忍(这样一种工作态度即 such a work attitude);

can't hold with the son cutting a class 不能容忍儿子旷一节课;

be patient with…(她)对(儿女)耐心;

be faced (或 confronted) with… 面临(许多危险即 a lot of dangers)等

九、“有关动词 + with…”作“随身有、随身携带、拥有、设有、备有、伴有、染有、患有”等讲时的用法举例

have money with…(我)随身有钱[with 后加 me];

carry… with…(他)随身携带(一本书)[with 后加 him];

Get away with your son. 带着你的儿子走。Get away (或 off, along) with you!滚开!去你的!(由“带着你自己走”引申过来。)He made away with himself. 他自杀了。(由“他带着他自己离世”引申过来。)run away with…(小偷)携(款)逃走,他和(一个女人)私奔;

possess oneself with our money(他)将我们的钱占为己有[oneself 改为 himself];

He was possessed by bad motives. 坏的动机缠住了他。(由“他被坏的动机所拥有”引申过来。) take the money with oneself 随身带走钱;

be equipped with…(这个学校)设有或拥有(三个球场即 three ball fields),(她)具有(足够的能力即 enough ability);

be stocked with…(这家商店)备有(许多新书等);

be ill (或 sick) with flu(他)患(流感);

be infected with…(伤口即 the wound)受(细菌即 germs)感染;

(学生)受(老师)的熏陶;

come(或 be taken)down with flu 患流感病倒;

She accompanied her speech with forceful movements of the hands. 她发表演说伴有强有力的手势。Today’s thunder was accompanied with lightening. 今天雷电交加。I have a cold accompanied with fever. 我感冒还伴有发烧.

十、“with + 介词宾语+宾语补(足)语”结构用于说明附带情况或交待细节举例。注意其中宾语补语可以用现在分词或其短语、过去分词或其短语、副词、形容词、介词或不定式短语形式出现

With the temperature being constant, the volume changes with the pressure. 当温度保持恒定不变时,体积随压强而变。

He felt quite nervous with so many people listening to his talk. 有那么多人听他讲话,他感到很紧张。

She often watches TV with the lamp lighted. 她常亮着灯看电视。

In winter I always sleep with the windows closed. 冬天我总是关着窗户睡觉的。

He is standing there with a book in his hand. 他正站在那边,手里拿着一本书。

He went off with a cap on. 他头戴一顶帽离开了。

We did such an experiment with windows open. 我们当时在窗户敞开情况下做了这样一个实验。

He went out with his head high(或 down). 他昂首(或低着头)走了出去。

In gases, the particles are far apart, with empty between. 气体中各粒子相互隔开,其间有空隙。

With so much homework to be done, I can't go to the cinema. 有那么多作业,我不能去看电影。

With five minutes to go before the train drew out, I got to the railway station. 在火车还有五分钟就要开出时,我到达了火车站。

十一、with 短语在有关名词后作后置定语,用以表示某些特征、附带的情况或作“连同一起”讲

Have you ever seen anybody with this name?可曾见过叫这个名字的人吗?

He is a senior engineer with forty years of experience. 他是位有 40 年经验的高级工程师。

I found your purse this morning, with 400 yuan in it. 我在今晨找到了你的皮包,里面有 400 元。

What a beautiful road, with tall green trees on both sides of it! 多么美丽的一条道路,其两旁都栽有绿树!

Yesterday I made friends with some young men with ideas. 昨天我和一些有思想的男青年交了朋友。

I have been to your office, with a few new-type computers init. 我去过你们的办公室,里面有几台新型的计算机。

We had four English classes only with a short rest period. 我们上了四节英语课,中间只有一次短暂的休息。

Would you like coffee with milk? 你愿要牛奶咖啡吗?

十二、“with + 表示情绪、意志、程度等的名词”作状语用,表示“……地”时的用法举例

face difficulties with courage 勇敢地面对(困难等);

meet guests with politeness 有礼貌地迎接客人;

speak Chinese with fluency 流利地讲中文;

visit Beijing with pleasure 高兴地访问北京;

study with a will 热情起劲地学习;

walk with ease 步履轻盈;

work with satisfaction 满意地工作;

smile with pride 得意地微笑;

agree to the plan with one voice(他们)异口同声地同意这个计划;

praise sb. with one accord(我们)一致表扬某人 等

十三、be + 表示态度或情绪的形容词(有时用过去分词形式)+ with…”结构用法举例

be delighted(或 pleased)with…(我)喜欢(这个舞蹈即 the dance);

be angry with sb. 对(某人)生气;

be concerned with… 关心(形势即 the situation);

be disappointed with (或 in)…对(他或他的工作)失望;

be frank with… 对(她)很坦诚;

be good (或 nice) with… 对(朋友)很好;

be popular with (或 among)…(这位教师)很受(家长即 the parents)欢迎;

be satisfied with… 对(某人或他的货物即 his goods)很满意;

be strict with…(他)对(儿女)很严格等

十四、with + 表示工具、手段等含义的名词等”跟有关动词搭配时表示“以或用…”意思时的举例

eat with… 用(筷子即 chopsticks)用餐;

clean glass with… 用(一块布即 a piece of cloth)擦玻璃;

be cooled with…(房子)用,空调器即 conditioners)冷却;

defend the motherland with… 用(枪炮即 guns)保卫祖国;

break… with a stone 用石头打破(窗户);

kill… with a gun 用枪打死(一只老虎即 a tiger);

be green with trees(这个地区即 this district)绿树成荫;

see much better with the advanced glasses 用高级眼镜看就清楚多了;

pollute air with CO 用一氧化碳污染空气;

shoot with… 用(枪炮)射击;

write with a ball pen 用圆珠笔写;

welcome a guest with open arms 张开双臂欢迎客人等

十五、“有关动词+ with…”表示“以…开始或结束”、“以…供给或贈给”等含义时的用法举例

begin (或 start) (v.) with…(今天)以(好消息即 good news)开始,(我们)以(这样一个胜利)来开始(新的世纪即 the new century)[begin 或 start 后接 such a victory] To begin (或 start) with, we want to visit Beijing. 首先,我们想访问北京。(句首部分为固定的插入语。)start off with…(这本英语手册即 the English handbook)以(A 字母)开始的;

end (或 finish)(v. )with…(他们)以(汤即 the soup)结束(正餐即 the dinner),(他)和(那个人)断绝来往;

conclude… with…(他)以“多谢”结束他的(演讲即 his speech)[with 加 many thanks];

present sb. with… 赠某人(一台桌面式计算机 a desk-top computer);

supply… with… 以(软件即 software)供给(市场即 the market);

provide… with…(我们)供给(他们)以(食物即 food)等

十六、“有关动词+ with…”表示“填充、填满、挤满、充满、富于、满足、满灌(或淹没)”等含义时用法举例

fill… with… 将(这个箱子即 the box)填满(沙子即 sand),将(这油箱即 the oil tank)灌满(汽油),将(水)灌满(杯子);

crowd the shelf with books(他)将(书)摆满书架;

be crowded with…(这房间)挤满(人即 people);

be fraught with…(探险即 the expedition)充满(危险),(这条船)装满(货物即 goods);

be flooded with…(麦田即 the wheat fields)被(大雨即 the heavy rain)淹没,(大厅即 the hall)到处是(抱怨声即 complains);

be loaded with… (卡车即 the truck)装满(石子即 stones);

be rich with…(她)富有(做汽车生意的经验即 experience in dealing in cars);

be satisfied with…(他)酒足饭饱 [后加 food and drink],(我)对(结果即 the result)心满意足;

be stocked with…(冰箱即 the refrigerator)贮满(食物);

be thick with…(空气)充满(烟雾即 smoke),(他的讲话即 his talk)充满(喜悦即 joy)等

十七、with 短语和有关动词搭配或单独使用作“对于…、关于…”、或“与…有关、就…说来”讲时的用法举例

He concerned himself with the plan. 那时他对这个计划很关心。This Book is concerned with Asia 这本书是关于亚洲的。be familiar with… 她熟悉或通晓(计算机即 computers)[=Computers are familiar to her];

be busy with… 他忙于(他的研究即 his research);

All is normal with my eyes, nose and ears. 我的眼、鼻、耳全都正常。All things are right with us. 我们的一切都很顺利。That’s a bad behavior with some children here. 那是与这里一些小孩有关的不良表现。have difficulty with…(我们)对(这个项目即 the project)有困难;

leave… with sb. (我)将(信、地址)留给某人,将(女儿)托付给(母亲);

lie with…(这项工作)是(他)的职责或由(他)承担;

raise a lot of questions with… 对(他)提出许多问题;

take up… with sb. 向某人提交(住房问题即 a question of housing)等

注 1: 下例中 with 短语的用法较为灵活:

1)With most of them (,) learning is more important than travel. 对他们大多数人说来,学习比旅游重要。

2)What’s the matter with her? 她怎么了?

3)It’s the same with old people. 对于老年人来说,情况是相同的。

4)It is night with the Americans while it is day with the Chinese. 对美国人来说是夜晚而对中国人则是白天。

注 2: 注意另外三个也表示“关于…”含义的 with 固定短语(主要用于书面语)

1)With reference to GDP, we will soon give you our further information. 至于 GDP(指国内生产总值)我们即将发布进一步的信息。

2)He didn't say anything with regard to his own income. 他没有说有关他个人收入的任何情况。

3)The debate with respect to the theories will be put off till next week. 有关这些理论的辩论将延期到下周举行。

十八、用介词 with 短语表示肯定的条件(联系用介词 without 短语表示否定的条件)

With the temperature being constant, the greater the pressure (is), the less the volume (is). 若温度不变,则压强越大,体积就越小。

Without sunlight and water there would be no plant. 如果没有阳光和水,就没有植物。

十九、介词 with 短语作“由于…”讲时用法举例

What with the heavy rain I was late again. 由于下大雨,我又迟到了。

The boy was tired with running. 这男孩跑累了。

She died with cancer last night. 她因患癌症于昨晚去世。

With such knowledge and experience, you will certainly write good software. 你有这样的知识和经验,一定能编出好的软件。

They came here at midnight, their ears red with cold. 他们半夜来到这里,耳朵冻得发红。

The girl lost her voice with singing too many songs. 这女孩唱歌太多把嗓子唱哑了。

He is infirm with age. 他年老体弱。

二十、介词 with 短语作“虽然或尽管”讲时用法举例

With all her money, she isn't living a happy life. 尽管她很有钱,但她并没有过着幸福的生活。

I don't like this project with all its advantages. 尽管这个项目有许多有利条件,但我不喜欢(它)。

With all her achievements, she was quite modest. 尽管她很有成就,但她当时却很谦虚。

二十一、有时 with 短语表示目的或结果。为此注意上下文的搭配关系及常用的几个固定短语

With the view of improving your listening comprehension, we are going to make use of educational films. 为了提高你们的听力理解,我们准备利用教学影片。

She wants to go to the supermarket with the attention of buying a video camera. 她想去超市,其目的是买一架摄像机。

She arrived at the small village with the purpose of visiting her teacher. 她到达这个小村庄是为了拜访她的老师。

They have discussed the contract for weeks, with the result that this morning we arrived at an agreement. 我们对这份合同讨论了好几个星期,结果于今天上午达成协议。

He didn't accept many good pieces of advice, with disastrous results. 他不接受许多有益的劝告,结果遭到灾难性的后果。

二十二、注意“有关副词 + with…”的一些固定短语的用法

Away with…! 把(它)拿走!去掉(旧的观点即 old viewpoints)!让(他)走开!Down with fascism!打倒法西斯!off with…! 脱下(你的帽子即 your cap)!断绝和(他)的关系!Off (或 Out) with you! 给我滚开!On with your shirt!穿上你的衬衣吧!On with the dance! 起舞吧!Up with China team! 支持中国队!Bring all your reference books, together (或 along) with a dictionary. 带上你所有的参考书,同时带一本辞典来。

Within 的搭配用法

一、介词 within 表示“在…内部或里面”或“进入…内部”,用于表示空间、距离在某些限度范围内

lie within the city walls(这些房子)在城(墙)以内;

keep within doors(他)呆在屋里;

be within ten kilometers from here(学校)离这里不到两公里;

be within sight (或 view) of land(我)已能望见陆地;

live quite within a stone’s throw of the hotel 住在离旅馆很近的地方[由“投掷石块所及的地方”引申过来];

sit (或 stand) within two paces of me(她)坐(或站)在离我不到两步的地方;

stay within shouting distance(小孩)呆在一喊便能听见的距离范围内;

see within the human body by using x-rays 利用 X 光看见人体内部;

come (或 be well) within range(敌人)正好处于射程范围内;

be within his rights(这)属于他的权利范围;

fall within…(这)属于(或落入)(我们的职责即 the scope of our duty)范围,(他的年龄即 his age)在(规定限度即 the prescribed limits)内;

won't refuse to do anything within reason 不会拒绝做任何合理的事;

be within…(这些结果即 the results)在(精确度即 the accuracy)范围内或不超过(实验误差即 the experimental error)等

二、介词 within 用于时间、数量方面表示“在…以内”、“不足…”之意

be (或 come) back within an hour(他)一小时内回来;

be repaired within five minutes(这台计算机)在五分钟内修好;

receive the letter within a week(我)不足一周便收到来信[过去时];

be stepped up within the year(生产即 the production)在一年内上升一个台阶;

die (或 be dead)within a month 一月内去世;

afford to buy… within 10000 yuan(他)在 1 万元内买得起(计算机)等

注 1:介词 within 和 in 用于表示时间方面的差别:

1)Henry will start out for Beijing within 3 days. 亨利将在三天以内动身去北京。

2)They will start out for Shanghai in 3 days. 他们将在三天以后动身去上海。(注意只限于用在将来时,不能用 after 代替 in。)

3)She worked out the plan in two hours. 她用两小时制订了计划。

注 2:有时通过“在微小的距离内”转译为“差一点”含义。例如:

1)The boy came within an inch of being run over by a car. 这男孩差一点被汽车压倒。

2)The girl was within an ace of drowning. 这女孩当时差一点淹死。(ace 本义为“毫厘、微量”。)

3)The man was beaten to within an inch of his life. 这男人差一点被打死。(比喻生与死的差距不足一英寸。)

三、介词 within 用在内心、状态方面表示“在…以内”、“不超出…”之意

Within our knowledge, such an event has never happened before. 据我们所知,这样的事件过去从未发生过。(由在“我们了解的范围内”引申过来。)

James felt that entirely fresh influences were at work within him. 詹姆士感到一些全新的影响在他内心起着作用。

Her speech is not within my memory. 她的演讲我记不起来了。

Their hearts sank within them at the news. 他们听到这消息,心就凉了大半截。

四、副词 within 用法举例

be clean within and without(房子、汽车等)里外都干净;

be white without and red within(窗帘、外衣等)外白内红;

inquire within 入内询问;

apply within 入内申请,be calm without and pure within(他)外表镇静和内心纯洁等

注:有时单个 within 作后置定语。例如:He stood at the door and saw all of the teachers within. 当时他站在门口并看见里面的所有老师。

五、单个副词 within 作介词 from 的宾语

open the door from within(我)从里面把门打开;

be shocked by a cry from within(她)被里面传出的叫喊声所震惊;

split… from within(敌人想)从内部分裂(党)等

Without 的搭配用法

一、介词 without 作“没有”讲,后面可接名词、代词、动名词或其短语等,并且在句中作表语、方式状语、条件状语、后置定语或插入语

Only a few homes in our community are without electronic brains. 我们社区内只有几家没有电脑。(表语)

a. Mary’s face is without expression. 玛丽的脸部毫无表情。(表语)

b. John looked at us without expression. 那时约翰毫无表情地看着我们。(方式状语)

It goes without saying that the girl will come back on time. 不用说,这女孩会准时回来。(方式状语)

Without such high technologies, there could be no network economy. 没有这样一些高科技,就不可能有网络经济。(条件状语)

Can you manage without a multimedia computer? 没有多媒体计算机你能对付吗?(条件状语)

It is the sky without a cloud. 这是个晴朗无云的天空。(后置定语)

There is no general rule without some exceptions. 没有一条普遍规律是没有例外的。

Ann is, without doubt, a very able teacher. 毫无疑问,安是一个很能干的老师。(插入语)

二、介词 without 后接复合结构的用法举例

Water can give off a lot of heat without its temperature changing very much. 水能放出大量的热,而其温度却变化不大。

These flowers grow without people to help. 这些花是在无人照料情况下生长的。

Without a word more spoken, the boy left the net friend club. 这男孩没有再说一句话便离开了网友俱乐部。

You shouldn't get out without a coat on in this weather. 这种天气你不应该不穿外衣往外走。

An object may be hot without the motion in it being visible. 一个物体,即使其内部的运动是看不见的,也可能是热的。

三、介词 without 和否定句搭配时的用法举例

You couldn't get in without a passport. 没有护照你就进不去。

They rejected your proposal, and not without reason. 他们拒绝了你的提议,这样做不是没有理由的。

There is no fire without some smoke. <谚>有火就有烟。(或译:无风不起浪。)

We can't speak English without making a mistake. 我们不能毫无错误地讲英语。(或译:我们讲英语不能不出错。)

四、副词 without 用法也可理解为介词 without 后的有关词被省略的结果

If we haven't any optical computer, we shall have to do without. 如果没有光计算机,那么我们只好不用了。

There isn't a pager for everyone, so some of us will have to go without. 做不到每人都有一个寻呼机,我们中间有的人只好没有寻呼机。

Desk with drawers are very different from those without. 带抽屉的书桌和无抽屉的书桌是截然不相同的。

Would 的用法

一、would 用于表示过去将来时、过去将来进行时、过去将来完成时的谓语中

He said (that) Jessica would go off with her mother for a holiday. 他说杰西卡将和她妈妈一起去度假。(过去将来时)

I thought they would be waiting for you there. 那时我想他们将会在那里等着你。(过去将来进行时)

She told me she would have fulfilled the task by ten o’clock. 她告诉我,她到十点钟将完成她的任务。(过去将来完成时)

注:在时间或条件状语从句中必须用过去一般时、过去进行时和过去完成时来代替过去将来时、过去将来进行时和过去将来完成时。例如:

1)We hoped she would work out the plan if she had free time. 我们希望如果她有空就把计划订出来。(在条件从句中代替过去将来时)

2)He said that he would put up his suggestion while they were talking about this problem at the meeting. (那时)他说当他们在会上谈论这个问题时他会提出他的建议。(在时间从句中代替过去将来进行时。)

3)Joe thought he would call us when (或 after) he had seen his mother off 当时乔想在他送走母亲后就给我们打电话。(在时间从句中代替过去将来完成时。)

二、would 用于假设(详见第 143 节、二)

If he had time, he would see them home. 假如他有时间,他就送他们回家了。(实际上他现在没有空,故不大可能送他们回家。)

Much labour would have been saved if the electronic computers had been invented before. 假如以前就发明了电子计算机,那早就节省许多劳力了。(实际上以前未发明电子计算机。)

She would have come to the supermarket, but she was too busy with her experiments. 本来她早就来超市了,但是她当时太忙于做她的实验了。(实际上她当时没来超市。)

Who would have thought so?(当时)谁会想到这样啊?(实际上当时谁都没有想到这样,故用虚拟语气。)

三、用 would that 表示几乎不可能实现的愿望或跟现实相反的愿望:

We would (= wish) that we could believe it. 可惜我们无法相信这件事。(本义是:巴不得我们能相信这件事多好啊!)

I would that I had stayed. 可惜我当时没有留下来。(原句意思是:我当时留下来就好了。实际上,他当时没有留下来,故用虚拟语气。)

四、would 表示按照某种判断“应当会……”之意,有主观揣测含义,语气要婉转些

Tomorrow would be a fine day. 明天会是个晴天。(语气比 will 婉转。)

I suppose what she has said is true. I don't think she would tell me a lie. 我想她说的话是真实的,我认为她不会对我说谎。(同上)

五、would 用于请求、希望或询问的场合下,作“愿意”、“想要”讲,语气比 will 委婉

Would you please tell us how to operate the super micro computer? 请您告诉我们怎样操作这台超级微型计算机。(表示请求)

I would recommend this method to you. 我愿把这种方法介绍给你。

She would be glad if you would give her an account of it. 你如果愿给她谈谈情况,她就会感到很高兴。(第一个 would 表示讲话人的主观揣测;第二个 would 表示“愿意”之意。)

We would rather go on with the experiment than give it up. 我们宁愿把这个实验进行下去,而不愿放弃不做.

Would you rather I didn't talk about it? 你不愿意要我谈这件事吧?(注意 would rather 后面直接用名词从句。)

I would rather go. 我愿意去。(=I had sooner go.)

I would sooner (或 would rather) stay where I am than go to such a place. 与其到这种地方去,我宁愿留在这里。

Everyone would like to make the best of himeself. 每个人都愿竭尽自己的力量。

He would as soon die as disgrace himself.(=He would rather(或 sooner)die than disgrace himself.)他宁死不受辱。

I would go with you as soon as not. 我宁愿同你去。(后面 as soon as not 相当于:胜过或不是我不愿同你去。)

a. Would you like chocolate?你愿意(或想)吃巧克力吗?(有“请客”想法。)

b. Do you like chocolate? 你喜欢吃巧克力吗?(仅是一般提问而已。)

六、would 表示过去多次动作

Newton was often so deep in thought that he would forget his dinner. 牛顿常常沉思,以致多次忘记吃饭。

When I was in Shanghai, she would tell me about the great changes in Shanghai. 当我在上海时,她常给我讲述上海的巨大变化。

注意 would 只表示过去多次动作,而 used to 表示过去习惯动作和状态,并且还有过去和现在的对比意味。故在下列头两句中不能用 would 代替 used to:

She used to be very careful in her research. 她过去搞科研总是很仔细。(表示过去习惯的状态)

Before 1998 he used to work ten hours a day. 1998 年以前他常常是每天工作十个小时。(言外之意,他现在不再这样干了。)

He would go to work on Sundays,too. 他过去往往在星期日也去上班。(这句话并不表示“他现在不再在星期日工作”。)

七、以 would 表示过去的不可避免的倾向,而 wouldn't 表示过去办不到的事。

During the war who would look up to us? 在战争期间,谁看得起我们?

They told us (that) the lamp would not light. 他们告诉我们,这盏灯亮不了。

八、would 用于科学幻想的文体中

In 2030,out of curiosity, I might even take a trip in a spaceshuttle and spend my vacation on another planet. By that time space travel would have become very much easier. 2030 年我出于好奇心也许乘航天飞机去另外一个行星旅游度假。到那个时候,宇宙旅行会变得容易多了。

Yet 的用法

一、副词 yet 作“还”、“仍然”讲

Much yet remains to be done. 尚有许多事待做。

Yet molecules are always moving, some perhaps as fast as a mile per second. 分子仍然总在运动,其中有些分子的运动速度达每秒一英里。

The experiment is not yet over. 这项实验尚未结束。

No one has yet seen an electron. 还没人见过电子。

Man has not yet learned to store the sun’s heat. 人类尚未学会贮藏太阳热。

二、副词 yet 和比较级连用,作“还要”、“更”讲,常可用 even 代替

This is a yet (或 even) more difficult task. 这是一项更为艰巨的任务。

We must study yet (或 even) harder. 我们必须更加努力学习。

三、副词 yet 用于现在完成时作“已经”讲,只用于否定句和疑问句中

Have you seen such a space shuttle yet? 你(已)见过这样的航天飞机吗?

Has the bell rung yet? 铃已打过了吗?

The bell has not been repaired yet. 铃尚未修好。

注:在肯定句中表示“已经”要用 already,不能用 yet。若在疑问句中用 already 代替 yet,则表示惊异的语气。例如:Has the bell rung already?铃真的打过了吗?

四、连词 yet 和 and yet, but yet 用法举例

It is very good, yet (或 but) it can be better. 这很好,但还能精益求精。

It is strange, and yet it is true. (=It is strange yet (或 but) true. )真奇怪,却是真的。

Air has weight, and yet it is very light. 空气有重量,虽然很轻。(可用 but 代替 and yet。)

Although this matter sounds strange, yet it is true. 此事听起来虽然奇怪,但却是事实。

The wheel is the simplest yet (或 but) perhaps the most remarkable of all inventions. 轮子是所有发明中最简单却也许是最非凡的一种。

Everyone thinks that this is a simple method, (but) yet he cannot believe it. 大家都认为这是个简单方法,但他不信。

五、词组 as yet(到目前为止)和 just yet(就在此刻)常用于否定句中

They have not made such an advanced computer as yet. 他们目前尚未制造出这样一种先进的计算机。

No one has as yet been able to produce the absolute zero of temperature. 还没有人能产生绝对零度。

It will not happen just yet. 此事一时尚不致于发生。

动词时态

任何英语句子里谓语动词所表示的动作,包含着发生的时间和进行方式两个方面,合起来称为“时态”。英语共有十六个时态(见本节末总表),兹分别讨论其中十三种时态。剩下的三种时态,由于很少使用,不再进行讨论。各时态的被动态形式见第 135 节上的一个表。

一、现在一般时(简称现在时)

一般现在时表示经常发生的动作或存在的状态(如习惯、客观事实和普遍真理等)

Computers are of great use to us. They help our national economy (to) developrapidly. 计算机大有用处。它们能帮助我国国民经济迅速发展。

The earth revolves around the sun. 地球围着太阳转。

Now the workshop is in good order. 现在这车间处于良好状态。

注:当主句为现在或将来时态时,则从句就按实际句意可使用各种相应时态。

二、过去一般时(简称过去时)

一般过去时表示过去发生的动作或存在的状态。这种动作或状态可能只限于一次,也可能是过去经常发生的。

Ⅰ. 用过去时动词表示

We had practice (或 worked) in the information center last year. 去年我们在信息中心实习(或工作)。

Before 1949 there was no oil industry here. 1949 年前这里没有石油工业。一般说来,句中出现过去时间的时间状语,谓语要用过去一般时。例如:

Last year he said he spoke English。去年他说,他会说英语。(句中出现 Last year, 谓语就用 said。后面 spoke 固然也是过去一般时,侧重表示当时情况,但这并不意味着:他去年说他会说英语,而今天就一点也不会说了。关于这一点,必须特别注意。)

II. 用 “used to + 动词原形” 表示过去习惯动作或存在状态,而“would + 动词原形”表示过去多次动作。

When I lived in Shanghai, I used to learn Chinese from Mr. Fang. 当我住在上海时,我常向方先生学习汉语.

Used there to be a bookshop on the corner? 过去在拐角处有一家书店吗?

Whenever he was free,he would operate the electronic brain. 那时他一有空,就操作电脑。

三、将来一般时(简称将来时)

Ⅰ. 将来一般时的基本意义和形式

将来一般时表示将来发生的动作或存在的状态,其一般表示形式为:第一人称单、复数 + shall + 动词原形(美国英语也可用 will 代替 shall。)第二、三人称单、复数 + will + 动词原形

This afternoon we shall(或 will)goto the net friend club. 今天下午我们将去网友俱乐部。

Advanced information technology will bring the development of science and technology to a new stage. 先进的信息技术将把科学技术发展引到一个新阶段。

注:在以 when, if 等连接的时间或条件状语从句内,要用现在时代替将来时:

1)I shall give you the book when I see you tomorrow. 明天见到你时,我就把书交给你。

2)He will not come if it rains tomorrow. 如果明天下雨,他就不来了。

II. 将来时还可用来表示一种倾向或一种固有特性:

Without air and water a living thing will die. 没有空气和水,生物便会死亡。

I think your computer is down. It won’t work. 我想,你的计算机坏了。它操作不了啦。

III. 将来一般时还可用下列五种形式表示即将发生或打算做的事:

A. “be going + 不定式(即 to + 动词原形)”(详见第 53 节、二 Ⅱ A)

They are going to pay a visit to Tianjin. 他们打算访问天津。

It is going to rain. 要下雨了。

B. “be + about + 不定式(即 to + 动词原形)”(参阅第 53 节、二 Ⅲ B):

The water is about to boil. 这水马上要开。注:本类句子不再用时间状语,也不能再用 immediately(立即)之类的词语。

C. “be to + 动词原形”即“be + 不定式”(参阅第 53 节、二 Ⅱ C):

We are to persist in our practice. 我们要坚持实践。

These operating rules are to be obeyed by everyone. 这些操作规程人人都要遵守。

There is to be a meeting next Monday. 下周一要安排一个会。

注:本句型比“be going + 不定式”具有更进一步的主动色彩,即不但有打算,而且还要一定实现的。

D. “be on (或 at) the point of…”也表示预期将来,但是动作发生就在眼前。例如:

He is on (或 at) the point of going to the trade centre. 他就要去贸易中心。

The patient is at (或 on) the point of death. 这位病人即将死去。

E. 表示往来动作含义的某些动词(如 arrive 到达,come 来,leave 离开,go 去,start 动身,return 返回,以及 do 做,issue 发行,publish 出版)有时用现在进行时形式表达最近大概要发生或打算要做的事。例如:

He is coming here next week. 他下周来这里。

What are you doing tomorrow?你明天要做什么?

F. 注意“is, am 或 are + likely (或 unlikely, liable, certain, sure, bound) + 带 to 的不定式”也表示将来一般时的含义。例如:

They are likely (或 liable) to see a test tube baby there. 他们可能会在那里见到试管婴儿的。

We are certain (或 sure) to wait on your children. 我们一定会照应你们的孩子。

Is he bound to attend tomorrow’s meeting?是否他必须参加明天会议吗?

注:如果句中不定式用完成式形式,则句义表示对目前情况的判断。例如:

The project is likely to have been discussed. 这个项目可能已作了讨论。

四、过去将来时(参阅第 132 节、一和七)

过去将来时表示在过去某一时刻以后将发生的动作或存在的状态。表达式为:主语 + would (第一人称用 should) + 动词原形

Yesterday he learned (that) we should go to work in a major high-tech firm next week. 昨天他听说我们下星期将去一个大型高科技公司工作。(句中 go 动作虽然尚未发生,但这里着眼点是与 learned 这个过去的动作相比,故用过去将来时。)

He said (that) he would come when he had time. 他说过他有空就来。(come 这个动作将在过去时动词 said 以后发生。)

注:上面表示一般将来时的第 Ⅲ 类中 A—E 五项,只要把其中的 be 改成过去一般时形式 was 或 were,也就可变为过去将来时。例如:

1)They told me they were to pave the way for the research workers. 他们告诉我,他们要为科研人员铺平道路。

2)I did not know when he was going there again. 我不知他何时再去那儿。

3)She said she was about to start. 她说她马上要动身了。

4)I didn't expect he was going to fetch my hat for me from the next room. 我没想到他准备从隔壁房间里为我拿来帽子。

注 2:如果在该用过去将来时句子中出现表示将来的具体时间,则就可用一般将来时代替过去将来时。例如:

He said he will do it in 2010. 他说他将在 2010 年做这件事。

五、现在进行时(参阅第 54节、一、I)

Ⅰ. 现在进行时表示此时此刻或目前一段时间内正在进行或不断进行的动作。它的表达式为:主语 + is (或 am, are, 随主语而定)+ 现在分词。

The space shuttle is revolving about the earth. 这架航天飞机正绕着地球运转。

This machine is working in full under the action of heavy current. 在强电流作用下,这台机器正以全速运转。

They are reading English beneath the window. 他们正在窗户底下读英语。

注:在时间或条件状语从句中,可用现在进行时代替将来进行时。例如:You will learn a lot from the programmers while you are working in the computing center. 当你们在计算中心工作时,你们将向程序员学习许多东西。(注意主句谓语为一般将来时。)

II. 现在进行时和一般现在时比较:

John is singing. He sings beautifully. 约翰正在唱歌。他唱得很优美。

It is getting dark. It gets dark at 6∶30. 天黑起来了。一般六点半天黑。

不难看出,上两句中前面部分都是当前正在进行的动作或状态,而后面部分是一般情况。

六、过去进行时(参阅第 54节、一、Ⅰ第 2 句)

过去进行时表示过去某时刻或某阶段内正在进行的动作。其表达式为:主语 + was(或 were, 随主语而定)+ 现在分词。

At ten this morning, I was receiving a radio station at 990 kHz. 今天上午十点,我在收听 990 千赫的无线电台。

Even when he came here, we were still working in the open. 甚至当他来这里时,我们仍在露天作业。

七、将来进行时(参阅第 54节、一、Ⅰ第 3 句)

将来进行时表示将来某时刻或某阶段内在进行的动作。表达式为:第一人称单、复数 + shall be + 现在分词 第二、三人称单、复数 + will be + 现在分词

At this time tomorrow we shall be waiting for you in Bank of China. 明天这个时候,我们将在中国银行等你。

He says (that) he will be having a computer class from eight to nine this morning. 他说今天上午八点到九点他将在上计算机课。

Man was, is and always will be trying to improve his living conditions. 人类过去、现在而且将来总是在尽力改善生活条件。

注:在口语中常用将来进行时来表示预计即将发生或势必要发生的事。例如:

1)Joe will come here to see you. 乔将来这里见你。(表示一种意志、意向和坚持。) 2)Emily will be going there to see her aunt. 埃米莉将去那边看望她的姨。(仅表示将来进行的动作,语气较比上句婉转。) 3)I’ll be doing our best. 我将竭尽全力。(比 we’ll do our best 婉转)

八、现在完成时(参阅第 49 节、二)

I. 现在完成时的基本意义和形式:

现在完成时表示一个过去发生而对现在还有影响的动作,或表示过去一直继续到现在的动作或状态。其表达式为:主语 + have(但第三人称单数则用 has)+ 过去分词

We have lived in Tianjin for two years. 我们在天津已住了两年。

Since 1978 great changes have taken place in Beijing. 1978 年以来,(在)北京发生了巨大的变化.

Tianjin has been rapidly changed. 天津已迅速改变了面貌。

There have been a lot of changes here in the last twenty years. 过去二十年,这里发生了许多变化。

They have just seen over the show house. 他们刚才察看了样品房。(注意 "have just + 过去分词”表示刚才发生的动作。)

Have you heard about it before? 你以前听说过这件事吗?

注 1:"have got + 名词”形式上是现在完成时,实际上和 have(有)具有相同意思。例如:

He has got (或 He has) a few compact discs. 他有几个光盘。

注 2:当状语为 already, not yet, in the last ten years, in the past three years, before, lately, in recent years, recently, during the past five years. within the past decade, since then, in these days, for a long time 等时,谓语仍可用现在完成时。当时间状语为 yesterday, last year, after 1949, in 1998 等时,谓语通常用过去一般时。

II. 现在完成时和过去一般时的比较:

I opened the windows this morning. 今天早晨我开了窗户。

I have opened the windows. 我已把窗户打开了。

He came here last week. 他上星期来这里的。

He has come here. 他已经来这里了。

从上述四句中可看出,第 1, 3 句中出现了表示过去时间的状语,着重表示过去发生的动作,至于现在“窗户是否仍开着”和“他是否走了”就不得而知了。第 2、4 句现在完成时着重过去动作的现状,即联系到目前时刻或过去动作在目前产生的影响。具体地说,“窗户现在仍开着”、“他现在仍在,没走”。现再举几例:

She has been to Shanghai Bund. 她去过上海外滩。

When did she go to Shanghai Bund? 她何时去上海外滩了?

I haven't been to Shanghai Bund. 我没有去过上海外滩。

I did not go to Shanghai Bund last year. 去年我没有去上海外滩。

上面四句中,第 5 句用现在完成时是联系到目前说话时刻为止去过上海外滩,并且去过上海外滩的累积次数至少是一次。第 7 句是现在完成时否定式。“没有去过上海外滩”意味着到目前时刻为止去过上海外滩的累积次数为零。“零”也是一个联系到现在为止的累积数,故也必须用现在完成时。第 8 句出现表示过去时间的时间状语 last year,谓语就必须用过去一般时。同理,第 6 句也必须用过去一般时,因为用疑问词 when 提问,回答时用的时间状语也必然指过去某时而言,因此谓语用过去一般时也是理所当然。

注 1:现在有一种倾向,特别是在美国,在随便谈话时,常用过去一般时代替现在完成时。

注 2:注意 “have just + 过去分词” 具有现在完成时形式,但表示“刚才做…”之意。例如 She has just seen such a thing. 她刚才见到这样的东西。

注 3:just now 既可与过去一般时连用,又可与一般现在时连用,但含义各异。

1)What she told me just now is right. 她刚才告诉我的事是对的。

2)They are busy just now. 他们现在正忙着呢。

注 4:如果主句用将来时,而时间或条件状语从句用现在完成时,则该现在完成时谓语实际上指将来的动作,并且还先于主句的谓语动作。例如:

I shall go with you when I have done my experiment. 我做完实验后就和你一起去。

He will help us if he has done his homework. 如果他做完课外作业,他就会帮助我们的。

九、过去完成时(参阅第 49 节、二)

过去完成时表示过去某时刻或某动作以前已经完成的动作,即表示“过去的过去”。其表达式为:主语 + had + 过去分词

By the end of 1962, we had met the demand for petroleum. 到 1962 年底,我们已满足了对石油的需要。

When you came here, we had coped with all kinds of difficulties in the scientific research. 当你来这里时,我们已解决了科研中各种困难。

By the time I entered Tianjin University, he had studied there for a year and a half. 到我上天津大学时,他已在那儿学了一年半了。

The letter reminded me of what she had once told me. 这封信使我想起她有一次和我讲的话。

They had failed several times, nevertheless they were confident (that) they would succeed in the end. 他们失败过几次,但他们仍然相信最后是能成功的。(本句以 they were confident(过去一般时)作为基准时间,前句为“过去的过去”,故用过去完成时;后句是“过去的将来”,故用过去将来时。)

注 1:过去完成时还可用来表示本来打算做而实际上没有做的事。由此推论,对过去事实作相反的假设,也就可用过去完成时的形式宋表示。这时过去完成时变为虚拟语气表示法中的一种形式。例如:

1)I had hoped to go for a walk, but someone called and I couldn't get away. 我本来希望出去散步。但有人来找,脱不了身。

2)I wish (that) I hadn't spoken like that. 我巴不得当时没那样说多好。

3)If he had left for Beijing yesterday, you couldn't have met him today. 假如他昨天动身去北京的话,那么今天早就碰不到他了。

注 2:除去假设句以外,在表示“过去的过去”这类句子中,若出现表示过去时间的绝对时间(如 in 1976 等)或以今天时间作为基准而表达的相对时间(如 yesterday, lastnight 等),则仍须用过去一般时。例如:

1)He said (that) you worked in an enterprise of tertiary industry in 1998. 他说你 1998 年在一家第三产业的企业工作。

2)She told me (that) her teacher came here yesterday. 她告诉我,她的老师昨天来这里了。

十、将来完成时(参阅第 49 节、二)

将来完成时表示在将来某时刻之前完成的动作。其表达式为:主语 + shall(但第二、三人称用 will)+ have + 过去分词。

By three o’clock this afternoon, the fuel in the furnace will have burned up (或 out). 到今天下午三点,炉内燃料将烧完。

When you come at eight o’clock tonight, I shall have reviewed ten lessons. 你今晚八点来时,我将已复习完十课书。

十一、现在完成进行时

Ⅰ. 现在完成进行时基本意义和形式:

现在完成进行时表示动作从过去某一时刻开始,一直延续到现在,强调动作的延续过程。但这个动作可能刚刚终止,也可能仍在进行。其表达式为: 主语 + have(但第三人称单数用 has)+ been + 现在分词

She has been listening to the Sports News since seven o’clock. 从七点起她一直在听体育新闻。

He has been working at The Shanghai Stock Exchange for ten years. 他一直在上海证券交易所工作了十年.

He has been watching (或 looking at) Animal World TV the whole morning. 他整个上午一直在看动物世界电视。(注意和现在一般时态句中用 always 的用法不同,后者指过去、现在以及将来都“一直”。)

They have been visiting some technology intensive industries these few days. 这些天他们一直在参观一些科技密集型产业。(动作是否延续,要视上下文而定。)

II. 现在完成进行时和现在完成时的比较

现在完成时着眼于过去发生或开始的动作与现在的联系而现在完成进行时,则着眼于现在到以前一段时间内动作一直在进行的过程本身。例如:

I have been reading the book for the whole day, yet I have not finished it. 我整天一直在读这本书,但是还没有读完。

I have read the book. 我读过这本书了。

前一句着眼于“一直不停地读”,但没有说明是否读完或可能读完。还须靠下文交待。但后一句 "have read" 着重说明“读过”或“读完”了。

十二、过去完成进行时

过去完成进行时表示动作在过去某一时间之前开始并延续到过去这个时间。这一动作当时可能还在进行,也可能已经停止。其表达式为:主语 + had been + 现在分词

Derek told me that he had been waiting for me for two hours。德立克告诉我,他一直等了我两小时。(动作不再延续)

By the time I came to China Telecom, Ann had been working here for eight years. 到我来到中国电信时,安在这里已经一直工作了八年。(当时动作可能还在进行。句中 by the time 引出一个时间状语从句。)

十三、将来完成进行时

将来完成进行时表示在将来某一时刻以前一直延续的动作。其表达式为: 主语 + will (第一人称用 shall) + have been + 现在分词

By next summer she will have been working in the insurance company for three years. 到明年夏天,她一直在保险公司工作将有三年了。

[附表] 英语动词十六种时态形式总表(以动词 work 为例)

时态 一般 进行 完成 完成进行时

现在 work(s) am working

are working

is working have worked

has worked have been working

has been working

过去 worked was working

were working had worked had been working

将来 shall work

will work shall be working

will be working shall have worked

will have worked shall have been working

will have been working

过去将来 should work

would work should be working

would be working should have worked

would have worked should have been working

would have been working

被动态和几个值得注意的问题

一、主动态和被动态的概念

主动态表示句子的主语是行为的发生者或执行者;被动态表示句子的主语是行为的承受者,即行为的对象。原主动句中的主语必须通过介词 by 引出来表示行为的发生者,而谓语必须用“be 的相应时态 + 过去分词”来表示。例如:

We built this plant in 1958. 1958 年我们盖了这个厂。(过去一般时主动态)

This plant was built by us in 1958. 这个工厂是由我们于 1958 年建造的。(过去一般时被动态)

Computer viruses have infected these computers. 计算机病毒已感染了这些计算机。(现在完成时主动态)

These computers have been infected by computer vi. ruses. 这些计算机已被计算机病毒感染了。(现在完成时被动态)

现以动词 tell [告诉]为例,列出被动态的各种时态表示形式的简表如下:

一般 进行 完成

现在时 I am told he is told

You are told

We are told

They are told I am being told

He is being told

You are being told

We are being told

They are being told He has been told

You have been told

We have been told

They have been told

过去时 I was told

He was told

You were told

We were told

They were told I was being told

He was being told

You were being told

We were being told

They were being told I had been told

He had been told

You had been told

We had been told

They had been told

将来时 I shall be told

We shall be told

He will be told

You will be told

They will be told 没有将来进行时的被动态 I shall have been told

We shall have been told

He will have been told

You will have been told

They will have been told

被动态没有将来进行时和完成进行时的各种时态;

有情态动词的被动态构成形式是“情态动词 + be + 过去分词”。

被动态中的 be 有时可用 get, remain, become, grow 等替换,词义有所变化。例如:Our technique is becoming increasingly specialized. 我们的技术正变得越来越专门化了.

二、被动态的几种表示形式

Ⅰ. 主语原来是主动态句的宾语:

A. 主语原来是主动态句“动词+直接宾语”中的直接宾语

Our work has been finished. 我们的工作已结束。

主动态句:We have finished our work.

The shops were hurt by a weak market for conditioners. 这些商店受到疲软的空调器市场的打击。

主动态句:A weak market for conditioners hurt the shops.

Theory must be combined with practice. 理论必须结合实际。

主动态句:We must combine theory with practice.

B. 主语原来是主动态句“动词+副词+宾语”中的宾语

Heat and light are given off by the chemical change. 热和光可由该化学变化放出。

主动态句:The chemical change gives off heat and light.

The TV set has been turned on. 电视机已经(被)打开了。

主动态句:Somebody(某人)has turned on the TV set.

C. 主语原来是主动态句“动词+宾语+(有时加用as)宾语补语”中的宾语。在被动态中由于原宾语变为主语,故说明原宾语的宾语补语也随之变为说明主语的主语补语。例如:

Petroleum is known to be a mixture. 我们都知道石油是一种混合物。(未按原文被动态结构翻译)

主动态句:We know petroleum to be a mixture.

Mr. Fang was seen repairing the washer. 有人看见方先生在修理洗衣机。(未按原文被动态结构翻译)

主动态句:Somebody saw Mr. Fang repairing the washer.

The glass rod was found electrified. 当时发现该玻璃棒是带电的。(未按原文被动态结构翻译)

主动态句:We found the glass rod electrified.

It is generally considered wrong to study without a plan. 一般认为,学习无计划是错误的做法。(未按原文被动态结构翻译。It 为形式主语,不定式短语为真正主语。)

主动态句:We generally consider it wrong to study without a plan. (it 为形式宾语,不定式短语为真正宾语。)

Radio waves are regarded as radiant energy. 无线电波被认为是辐射能。

主动态句:We regard radio waves as radiant energy.

This conclusion was accepted as true. (那时)这个结论人们信以为真。(未按原文被动态结构翻译)

主动态句:People accepted this conclusion as true.

Water can be shown as containing admixtures. 可以证明水含有杂质. (未按原文被动态结构翻译)

主动态句:We can show water as containing admixtures.

The wire is considered as disconnected. 这根线被认为是断开了。(主动态句略)

II. 主语原来是主动态句中的间接宾语:

I was given the book by the teacher. 老师把这本书给了我. (未按原文被动态结构翻译)

主动态句:The teacher gave me the book.

试比较另一种被动态句:The book was given me by the teacher.

You will if shown our workshop. 将领你参观我们的车间。(未按原文被动态结构翻译)

主动态句:I shall show you our workshop.

试比较另一种被动态句:Our workshop will be shown (to) you.

注:当间接宾语为人或团体而直接宾语为物时,一般倾向于以代表人或团体的间接宾语作主语来构成被动态。

It was not until 1835, however, that this phenomenon was given a name. 可是,直到1835年这个现象才有一个名称。

III. 主语原来是主动态句中的介词宾语:

A. 主语原来是“不及物动词 + 介词 + 介词宾语”中的介词宾语:

The plan was approved of. 这个计划得到赞同。

主动态句:All of us(我们大家)approved of the plan.

The matter was very often talked about. 这件事曾被多次谈到。

主动态句:All of us talked about the matter very often.

After a while an agreement was arrived at. 过一会儿达成了一致的意见。

主动态句:All of us arrived at an agreement after a while.

The lost pen is being looked for. 丢失的钢笔正在寻找中。必须注意,主动态句中的介词宾语能变为被动态句中主语的,只限于某些固定词组。例如:listen to… (听…),account for…(说明…),acton (或 upon)…(作用于…),agree on…(对…同意),call for…(要求…),rely on (或 upon)…(依靠…),depend on (或 upon)…(信赖),resort to…(求助于…),think of…(想到…),look at…(看…),look after…(照料…,看管…),refer to…(查阅…,参考…),speak of…(讲到…),talk about…(谈到…),discriminate against…(歧视…),arrive at…(得出结论即 the conclusion)等。

B. 主语原来是“动词+名词+介词+介词宾语”中的介词宾语. 有时句中动词短语内的名词也可在被动态句中作主语。例如:

Computers can be made full use of in the production processes. 计算机是可以在这些生产过程中充分利用的。

主动态句:We can make full use of computers in the production processes. 但是本句也可改用动词的宾语作被动态句中的主语,即:Full use can be made of atomic energy in the production processes.

The development of information technology has been paid attention to by our government. 信息技术的开发已受到我国政府的重视。

主动态句:Our government has paid attention to the development of information. 我国政府已重视信息技术的开发。本句还可改成用动词的宾语作被动态句中的主语,即:Attention has been paid to the development of information technology by our government.

Such things will be taken proper care of. 这些事要给予适当注意。

主动态句:We will take proper care of such things.

本句也可改成以动词宾语作被动态句的主语,即:Proper care will be taken of such things.

The boat was soon lost sight of in the fog. 不久小船在雾中看不见了。(主动态句:People soon lost sight of the boat in the fog. )必须注意,本类句型能改成被动态的,一般只限于某些常用的固定词组。

例如:lay stress on…(强调…),make reference to…(提到…,参考…),make allowance for…(估计到…),make mention of…(提到…)等。

Ⅳ. 用“get 或 (become 等) + 过去分词”来表示被动态,但这时一般不能用 by 引出行为发生者。

This liquid became mixed with the salt at room temperature. 该液体在室温下与盐混合了。

All her works got talked about a little。对她的所有著作(当时)都略加议论一番。

Photographic plates become darkened on exposure to X-rays. 照相胶片一曝露于 X 射线后立即变暗。

Ⅴ. 以“主语 + be 的相应时态 + 形容词(如 certain, bound, likely, sure 等) + to be + 过去分词”表示的被动态句型:

You are certain (或 bound) to be received warmly. 你们一定会受到热情的接待。

Everything that is good is sure to be praised. 好事有人夸。

They are not likely to have been told about it。这件事不大像已经告诉了他们。

Cast iron is apt to be broken. 生铁容易破裂。

Ⅵ. 用不定式动词、-ing 和单个过去分词表示的被动式举例:

The problem discussed is very important. 所讨论的问题十分重要。(定语)

This is a question to be answered at once. 这是一个立即要(给予)回答的问题。(定语)

The new type of device seems to have been made. 这种新型装置看来已经制成。(主语补语)

Some molecules are large enough to be seen in the electronic microscope. 有些分子大得足以用电子显微镜看见它们。(状语)

Water has the property of dissolving sugar; sugar (has) the property of being dissolved by water. 水具有溶解糖的性质,而糖具有被水溶解的性质. (介词宾语)

The plant being built will be a new chemical plant. 正在盖的那个厂将是一座新的化工厂。(定语)

Being cooled in the air, the metal hardened. 该金属在空气中冷却时,就硬化了。(状语)

Having been well insulated, the wire may be used in this machine. 金属丝很好绝缘以后,就可用于该机器中。(状语)

The question being settled. we all left the room. 问题解决以后,我们都离开了房间。(独立分词结构)

Heated, the metal expands. 金属受热就膨胀。(状语)

They daren't ask questions, for they are afraid of being laughed at. 他们不敢提问,因为他们怕遭到嘲笑。(这里介词宾语是涉及主语的动名词被动态。)

三、关于语态的几个值得注意的问题

Ⅰ. 区别被动态和表语的实用价值。“动词 be + 过去分词”这个结构不一定都是被动态。有时它可能是“be + 表语”这种句子结构。例如:

We are agreed on this point. 在这一点上我们同意。(表语)

We are determined to improve the production process. 我们决心改善这个生产过程。(表语)

“be + 表语”结构表示主语所处的状态,而被动结构则表示一个动作,并且它的时态一般还要与相应的主动结构的时态一致。如果是带表语的结构,就不必这样考虑了。我们列出几组句子加以比较:

(a) The glass plate is broken. 这玻璃板是破的。(表语)

(b) The glass plate was broken by him. 这玻璃板(当时)被他打碎了。(被动态)

(a) The book is written well. 这本书写得很好。(表语)

(b)The book has been written by our teacher. 这本书已由我们的老师写成。(被动态)

上面例句 3(a) 和 4(a) 的特点是说明玻璃板的破碎状态和书写得好的状态,而例句 3(b) 和 4(b) 则侧重说明“破碎”和“写”这些动作,因此就要求对“何时打碎(或写)的”和“被谁打碎(或写)的”等问题在句中有所体现。句 3(b) 和 4(b) 中用过去时或现在完成时以及“by + 行为主体”的道理即在于此。为了加深印象,再举几例:

(a)The door was locked when we got back. 当我们回来时,门是锁着的。(过去时表语,表示“门”的过去状态。)

(b) The door had been locked when I got there. 当我到那儿时,门已上销了。(过去完成时被动态,强调行为,表示我到那儿时,已有人早就把门锁上了。)

The window was shut at six when I went by,but I don't know when it was shut. 我在六点钟路过时,这扇窗户是关着的,但我不知这窗户是什么时候关的。(第一个 was shut 表示过去时状态,作表语,而第二个 was shut 表示动作,是过去时被动态。)

II. 注意英语用相当于及物动词意义的短语动词构成的被动态。初学者对于一些及物动词或不及物动词再加上一些词构成的被动态(如本节 节、二 Ⅲ),有时就不好理解。遇到这类问题时,最好用还原法,即还原成主动态句,就易于理解句意。例如:

He was listened to with great interest. 当时人们怀着着很大兴趣听他讲话。初学者知道 listened 是 listen (听)的过去分词,但一见到后面的 to 和 with 罗列在一起,就有点迷惑不解。如果改为主动态句,就易于理解:We listened to him with great interest. 我们抱着很大的兴趣听他讲话。

At light hold was caught of the rope. (当时)这根绳子被拉得很紧。

主动态句:Somebody caught a tight hold of the rope. 注:有时通过连字符带介词的过去分词还可作前置定语。例如:He earned undreamed-of wealth. 他赚得梦想不到的财富。

III. 含有“be + going + 不定式”、“be + 不定式”、“have + 不定式”等谓语中,其中不定式也都可用被动语态。例如:

A new test is going to be carried out next week. 下周进行新的试验。

She had to be operated on right away. 当时对她得马上动手术。

Oil supplies are to be cut back. 石油供应量要削减。

Ⅳ. 汉语中被动态的使用远不如英语那样广泛,因此凡是译成汉语被动态后读起来比较别扭的,就应译为汉语的主动态或无主语句等.

Ⅴ. 注意可用不及物动词 fly, travel, move 等的过去分词作后置定语来表示“飞行、旅行、传播、移动”等的距离、里程等。例如:the distance flown 已飞行的距离;the mileage to be flown 要飞行的英里数;the kilometrage travelled 旅行的公里数,传播的公里数;the distance moved 移动的距离等。

Ⅵ. 在被动态句中表示行为发生者主要用 by 短语,但用 with 短语的也有,只是 with 后的名词已接近于表示行为的工具,而不是表示人的名词。例如:

We are deeply impressed with his good example. 他的好榜样使我们深受感动。

He was struck with an idea. 他忽然想起了一个主意。(直译为:他被一个想法攫住了。)

Ⅶ. 注意双重被动态句的结构:句中谓语是被动态,而后面又用不定式被动态或表示被动的过去分词。例如:

The books are not allowed to be taken out of the reading room. 书不准携出阅览室外。

The research work is reported to have been completed yesterday. 据报道,这项研究工作已于昨日完成。

This instrument is supposed to be used only by skilled workers. 人们认为这个仪表只有技术工人才会使用。

Oxygen is found combined with many elements. 我们发现氧能和许多元素化合在一起。

Ⅷ。注意有些过去分词(多半是一些不及物动词的过去分词)并不表示被动含义,而是表示该动作完成后的状态或景象。详见第 037节、二、Ⅳ。

The work of month sand the dream of years became nothing. All Edison’s money was gone. 几个月的心血和多年的理想都化为乌有。爱迪生的钱都花光了。

Ⅸ. 注意英语中有时用主动态表示被动意义的情况:

This kind of cloth washes very well. 这种布很经洗。

The pen writes quite smoothly. 这枝钢笔写起来很流畅。

The book is printing. 该书在印刷中。

The machines made in China sell very well abroad. 中国制造的机器在国外畅销。

Ⅹ. 在动词 need, want, require, deserve 等后面要用主动语态的动名词表示被动含义。例如:

My cellphone needs repairing (或 to be repaired). 我的移动电话需要修理。

The floor wants washing (或 to be washed). 这地板需要拖洗了.

Your shoes require cleaning (或 to be cleaned). 你的鞋要擦擦了。

Ⅺ. 注意非谓语动词在句中的语态一般要和主语或其它有关的词协调一致。参阅“过去分词”专题第 037节、一。

句子的种类

一、按句子的目的来分,有下列四种

Ⅰ. 陈述句 用来叙述一项事实。

A. 基本结构:主语 + 谓语 + ……

They often talk English. 他们常讲英语。

Instant noodles sell well. 方便面畅销。

TV home shopping is popular here this year. 今年电视直销在这里很受欢迎。

注:there be 句型和某些倒装句中主语和谓语有颠倒现象(见第 148 节、一)。

B. 否定结构:主语 + 谓语(随主语而变的 be、have 或助动词、情态动词) + not + …

Glass is not a conductor. 玻璃不是导体。

Henry will not join in our discussion. 享利将不参加我们的讨论。

He has not bought a P.C. yet. 他尚未买个人计算机。

Prof. Lu doesn't get online on Sundays. 卢教授星期日不上网。

注:英语还有用 never, neither, no, none, nothing, nobody, hardly, scarcely 等词表示否定意义,详见上述词的用法索引。

II. 疑问句 用来提出疑问,句末用问号“?”。疑问句的语序一般都部分倒装,即把谓语中的 be (如 is, are 等),助动词或情态动词等放到主语之前。当谓语由行为动词单独构成时,则须在主语前面加助动词 do (或 does, did 等)。疑问句有下列四种形式:

A. 一般疑问句

Are you college students? 你们是大学生吗?

Have you improved the operating rules? 你们改进了操作规程吗?

Does she go by the safety rules? 她遵守安全规程吗?

Is there anybody in the room? 房间里有人吗?

注 1:一般疑问句通常要求用 yes 或 no (或 not at all 等)来回答。对问句表示同意时,除 yes 外,还可用下列同义词语:certainly一定,of course 当然,please do 请便好了,with pleasure 好的,if you please 随你便,quite so 相当对,exactly 正是如此,absolutely 绝对是的,quite right 说得对(或很对),I think so 我想是这样的,yes, if you like 是啊,随意好了,by all means 完全可以或务必这样等。

注 2:英语用否定句形式提问,而在回答时,仍可把它视为肯定句形式的问句来回答。但译成汉语时,差别很大。例如:

Haven't you been to Shanghai? 你没去过上海吗?

Yes,I have. 不,我去过。

No,I haven't. 是,我没去过。

B. 特殊疑问句 疑问句前出现疑问词的,叫做特殊疑问句。这时句中主语、谓语仍按一般疑问句的要求,需要部分颠倒。只有当主语或主语部分有疑问词出现时,主语、谓语才不颠倒。

What is the reason for your being late? 你迟到的原因何在?(句中 What 作表语)

How can we keep pace with the new development of modern scientific research? 我们怎样才能跟上现代科学研究的新发展?

When and where did he buy the pager? 他何时何地买了这个寻呼机?

Who has read this book? 谁读过这本书?

Which English books were bought by you yesterday? 你昨天买了哪些英语书?

How long is Shanghai’s Metro Route 2?上海地铁二线有多长?

注 1:如果特殊疑问句中插入以一般疑问句形式出现的插入句,则特殊疑问句本身的主语、谓语仍按正装语序排列。例如:How many test-tube babies did she say she had seen there? 她说她在那边见到了多少个试管婴儿?

注 2:注意句子成份不齐全的特殊疑问句。

1) What about our going shopping? 我们去购物怎样?

2) How about watching TV? 看电视怎样?

3) Why go to her office? 为什么去她的办公室?(持否定态度。)

4) Why not have a chat with him? 为什么不和他聊聊?(表示肯定的建议。)

5) Dad is reading a novel. 爸爸正在读一本小说。

Who by (或 By whom)? 谁写的?

6) I wrote a letter yesterday. 我昨天写了一封信。

Who to (或 To whom)? 给谁写的?

注 3:名词从句(如主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句等)用疑问词引导时,其后面的主语、谓语不必颠倒。例如:I don't know when the conference will be held. 我不知道该会何时举行。(when 引出宾语从句。若将 I don't know 改为 My question is, 则 when 引出表语从句。)

C. 选择疑问句 句型结构和一般疑问句相同,只是句中用连词 or 提供两个或更多个选择方案。

Are you doing this test or that one? 你在做这项试验还是那项试验?

Will you go online or stay here? 你将去上网还是留在这里?

Do you work in Tianjin or in Beijing? 你在天津还是在北京工作?

D. 反意疑问句 提问者先提出情况和看法,然后问对方是否同意。在句子结构上是前面部分用陈述句的形式,后面部分用前面部分的简短问句形式提问。必须注意,如果前面部分是肯定句,则后面简短问句用否定式;如果前面部分为否定句,则后面简短问句就用肯定式. 例如:

She is your teacher, isn't she?她是你们的老师,对不?

He hasn't been to Japan, has he? 他没去过日本,是吗?

They said nothing about it, did they? 他们关于这件事没说什么,对吗?

He has to learn English, does’t he? 他得学英语,是吗?(注意句末否定式与前面谓语动词组成部分不同。)

She never used to drive any car, did she? 她过去从来不开汽车,是吗?(同上)

注:注意下列句子却不是反意疑问句:

1) Let’s go and see the film, shall we? 我们去看电影,怎样?(征求对方意见,共同进行某一动作。)

2) a. Send an e-mail, will you? 发一封电子邮件,好吗?(用于第二人称,含有命令口吻。不算反意疑问句。)

b. Have a cup of tea, won't you? 请喝一杯茶。(用于请客场合,仍是反意疑问句。)

c. (It is a) Fine day, isn’t it? 天气很好,是吧?(仍是反意疑问句。)

E. 疑问句的其它难点在于它用于强调句型或在问句中插入定语从句:

When was it that he made up his mind to take a trip to Beijing? 是什么时候他决定去北京旅行的?(被强调的是状语 when。因它是疑问词,在构成特殊疑问句时就置于句首,后面 it was 也就颠倒。)

When is a body which is free to turn about a point balanced? 在某一支点上能自由摆动的物体何时平衡?

III. 祈使句 用来提出请求、命令、建议或祝愿等。主语 you 常省略。

Be careful! 小心!

Don’t be late! 别迟到!

Please don’t make any noise! 请勿喧哗!

Let’s go for a walk. 让我们去散步吧!

May you succeed. 祝你成功。

Long live our friendship! 我们的友谊万岁!

Ⅳ. 感叹句 目的在于表示强烈的感情。常用 what 和 how 引出强调部分并放在句首(what 修饰名词, how 修饰形容词、副词)。

What a tall TV tower (it is)! 多高的电视塔啊!

How tall the TV tower is! 这座电视塔多么高啊!

How fast he is working! 他干得多快啊!

What a mistake (it is) to have rejected the suggestion! 否定了这个建议是多么错误啊!

How time flies! 时间过得多快啊!

The bridge is absolutely unsafe! 这座桥绝对危险!(注意用陈述句加惊叹号构成的感叹句。使用时要用升调和惊叹语气。)

注:有时见到疑问句否定式或肯定式结构,但句末用惊叹号,应按感叹句去理解。例如:

1) Wasn't it a wonderful match! 这是一场太精彩的比赛了! (注意无否定含义。)

2) Am I angry! 我太生气了!

二、按句子结构来分,有下列三种

Ⅰ. 简单句只有一套主谓结构,但容许有并列主语、并列谓语。(例句略)

II. 并列复合句含有两套或更多相互并列的主谓结构的句子,叫做并列复合句。换句话说,它是由两个或更多个并列的简单句构成的。各分句靠连词和逗号、分号来连接。

We study English and they (study) Japanese. 我们学英语,而他们学日语。

We often go to the countryside as well as (we often go) to factories. 我们常下厂,也常下乡。

Computers are not only necessary, but they also play an important role in the national economy. 计算机不仅需要,而且在国民经济中起着颇为重要的作用。

Water has weight; air has weight too, but it is very light. 水有重量;空气也有重量,但空气很轻。

A body must move, otherwise (或 or, or else) no work is done. 物体必须移动,否则就没有作功。

It is blowing hard, so (或 and so, therefore, hence)we must close all the windows. 正刮着大风,所以我们必须关上所有窗户。

He speaks very fast, nevertheless we understand him. 他说话很快,然而我们仍能听懂。

He thought (that) it was gold, whereas it was only a brass. 他认为这是黄金,而实际上只是一件黄铜器。(宾语从句为两个并列分句。)

Either the skin will become diseased, or the blood will be injured by being forced to retain its impurities. 强使污物留下,不是引起皮肤病,就是伤害血液。

同时也须注意,用 so 代替前句(限于肯定句)中出现的句子成分,并要求句子成分倒装(见第 10、11 句)。在否定句中,则用 neither 或 nor 代替否定句中出现的有关成分(见第 12,13 句)。

Heat is energy, so is electricity. 热是能,电也是能。

He likes to study English, so do I. 他喜欢学英语,我也喜欢。

Neither is he mistaken, nor am I. 既非他错,也非我错。

Ms.Liao does not speak French, neither(或 nor)do I. 廖女士不会讲法语,而我也不会。

The oil must be out, for the lamp has gone out. 油一定用完了,因为灯已熄灭。(后一句通过 for 补充说明,故未用 because。)

Liquids, however, resist change of size(or volume), gases do not. 可是,液体不会有尺寸大小即体积的变化,但气体就有这种变化。(本句用逗号连接两个并列分句。)

More than 150 students took the entrance examination, yet out of them only 90 passed. 当时参加入学考试的学生超过 150 人,但仅有 90 人通过。

His painting is not very valuable—still I like it. 他的绘画不是很值钱—但我喜欢它。

要特别注意 when, while, until 等连词引出的并列分句,多数前面有逗号。例如:

He was about to go on, when a new idea made him stop. 他正想继续走下去,而一个新的念头使他停了下来。

She studies harder, while her brother is not a hard student. 他学习较努力,而她的兄弟却不是个用功的大学生.

The little baby grew more and more sickly, until presently he died. 那婴孩病得越来越重,终于不久死去。

III. 主从复合句 含有两套或更多的主谓结构,其中有一个是主要的主谓结构,其它主谓结构从属于它并担任其句子成分。这个主要的主谓结构为主句,其它附属于它的主谓结构为从属句,担任主句中某个成分,如主语、表语、宾语、介词宾语、定语、同位语、状语(包括地点、条件、时间、原因、让步、比较、结果等状语)。从句担任哪个句子成分,这个从句就叫做该成分的从句,如主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句等即是。兹举例如下:

Who made these improvements is unknown. 谁作了这些改进,大家都不知道。(主语从句)

It is certain that he will come to the discussion. 他来参加讨论是肯定无疑的。(主语从句,为形式主语。)

Our conclusion is that he must keep up with the times. 我们的结论是:他必须跟上时代的发展。(表语从句)

I don't know who invented computers. 我不知道谁发明了计算机。(宾语从句)

What do you know about how the IP phone works? 关于网络电话如何工作你知道些什么呢?(介词宾语从句)

A generator is a machine that (或 which) changes (或 transforms) mechanical energy to electrical energy. 发电机是将机械能变为电能的一种机器。(定语从句)

He has come to the conclusion that science and education are quite important to the national economy. 他已得出结论:科学和教育对国民经济颇为重要。(同位语从句)

If (或 When) I have enough money,I would like to go on a trip. 如果我有足够的钱(或当我有足够的钱时),我就愿专旅行。(条件状语从句或时间状语从句)

Since this method doesn’t work, let them try another one. 既然这个方法不行,就让他们试用另外一种方法。(原因状语从句)

This is where my mother lives. 这就是我母亲居住的地方。(表语从句)

You have to go where you met that experienced programmer. 你务必去你当初遇到那位有经验的程序员的地方。(地点状语从句)

从上述例句中可看出,从句只作句子某个成分,并且还要靠 that(无词义;仅在第 6 句中 that 代替前面的 machine,并在从句中作主语),which,where,when,if,since 等词来引出从句。我们把这些词统称为关联词。这些词不限于引导某一种从句,同时还有其它用法。这些正是本手册的重点内容。可在目录中按字母顺序查这些词的用法,又可从语法目录中各种主从复合句中查出这些词可引导哪几种从句。这里,我们拟提一下 where by(借此,凭此),whence(自该处),where in (在那里,在那点上),where on(在那上面)等引出定语从句的用法,并举例如下:

This is the best method where by (=by which) we produce such chemicals. 这是我们生产这样一些化学制品的最好方法。

He has returned whence (=to the place from which) he came. 他已回到他出来的地方。

These are matters where in (=in which) I differ from you. 这些是我和你看法不同的问题。

The island where on (=on which) he lived for many years is far from Shanghai. 他住过多年的岛离上海很远。

句子成分 (Sentence Components)

句子成分系一个句子的各个组成部分。句子成分与词类不同。词类指孤立的单词的分类,如分为名词、代词、数词、动词等等,而句子成分则指单词或一组单词(如词组、短语)在句中的功用。句子成分有主语、谓语、表语、宾语、定语、状语、宾语补语、主语补语、同位语等。这里先叙述前六种句子成分,而宾语补语等几个成分将在后面按专题进行说明。

主语(包括主语从句)

主语是一个句子所说明的主体。主语一般位于句首部分,只有在 there be 结构的句子内、疑问句(当主语不是疑问词时)和倒装句中,主语才位于谓语、助动词或情态动词的后面。主语一般可由名词、代词、数词、不定式、动名词、名词化的形容词和主语从句等表示。例如:

This is China Report, but that is World Report. 这是中国报道,但那是世界报道。(两个指示代词作主语。)

The most important is that we have been developing our knowledge economy. 最重要的是我们一直在发展知识经。(形容词最高级名词化作主语。)

a. Two and three make five. 二加三等于五。(基数词作主语。)

b. There are two ways to make these machines, but the first is worthy of note. 制造这些机器有两种方法,但第一种方法值得注意。(名词和序数词分别作主语。)

To break the record is necessary. (=It is necessary to break the record) 打破纪录是必要的。(不定式短语作主语。)

a. Writing computer programs is creative work. 编写计算机程序是创造性工作。(动名词短语作主语。)

b. Problem solving and creative thoughts are far more effective in such cases. 在这样一些情况下解题和创造性思维,其效果就好得多。(同上)

Connecting one computer to another through telephone lines is communicating online. 将一个计算机通过电话线与另一个电话连接就是网上通讯。(同上)

That computers are very important is known to us all. (= It is known to us all that computers are very important. )计算机很重要,这是我们大家都知道的。(主语从句。若用 it,则 it 为形式主语。)

How quickly a fuel burns depends on how well it is mixed with oxygen or air. 燃料的燃烧速度有多快,取决于燃料和氧或空气的混合程度怎样。(第一个从句作主语。由于是疑问词引出句,故不再用连词 that。)

It does not matter whether he speaks French or not. 他会不会讲法语,那没什么关系。(从句作主语,It 作形式主语。)

It is not clear which one is the best of all the portable phones. 不清楚在所有这些移动电话中哪一架最好。(同上)

What he said about cloning technology is quite helpful to us. 他讲的有关克隆技术的内容对我们是有帮助的。(从句作主语。)

谓语

说明主语的动作或状态的句子成分叫做谓语。谓语多半位于主语的后面。系动词也属于谓语部分,不限于 be, become, get 还有 remain, smell, taste, look, feel, seem, appear, prove, go, sound 等等。详见目录中动词时态、助动词或情态动词 will, would, should, shall, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, need, dare 等。

表语 (包括表语从句)

In business dealings, including electronic commerce, honesty is the best policy. 做生意包括电子商务,讲信誉是上策。(名词作表语。意译)

Their after-sale service is getting better and better. 他们的售后服务越来越好。(形容词比较级作表语。)

Is this video game machine yours? 这台音像游戏机是你的吗?(名词性物主代词作表语。)

The milk went sour. 这牛奶变酸了。(形容词作表语。)

That post fell vacant last year. 那个职位去年是空着的。(同上)

Snow lay thick on the ground. 地上积雪很厚。(同上)

The windows here are broken. Who broke them? 这里的窗户都是破的。这是谁打破的呢?(过去分词作表语。)

She was the first to arrive at the computer center. 她是第一个到达计算中心的。(序数词作表语。)

The flowers smell sweet. 这些花有香甜味。(形容词作表语。)

His dream has come true. 他的梦想实现了。(同上)

Information technology is the marrying-up of computers, television, and satellites. 信息技术是计算机、电视和卫星的“联姻产物”。(动名词短语作表语。)

Hot metals are contracted as they grow cooler. 热金属变冷时就收缩. (过去分词作表语。)

The United Nations’ Law of Sea Conference was over. 联合国海洋法会议结束了。(副词作表语。)

The theory sounds convincing. 这个理论听起来很有说服力。(形容词作表语。)

Noman is born wise. 没有人生来是聪明的。(形容词作表语。)

She went a girl, but came back a mother. 她走时是女孩,但回来时已是一位母亲。(名词作表语。)

Our task is building (或 to build) our motherland into a powerful country. 我们的任务是把祖国建设成一个强大的国家。(动名词或不定式短语作表语。)

Their children are at play (或 school, table). 他们的孩子在玩耍(或上学、吃饭)。(介词短语作表语。)

The fact is that computers are of great aid (或 benefit) to the development of our national economy. 事实是计算机十分有利于我们国民经济的发展。(表语从句。在该从句内介词短语 of… 作表语。)

Is that how you award me for my help? 这就是你为我的帮助而付给我的报酬吗?(表语从句。由于从句由疑问词引导,就不能用连词 that。)

That is what they call TV home shopping. 这就是他们所谓的电视直销购物。(这里也可改用 what is called…,已变为固定结构,作“所谓的…”讲。what 无疑问词含义。)

He is alive (或 asleep, awake, ill 等). 他活着(或睡着、醒了、病了等)。

注 1:英语中有些形容词(如上句中的 alive 等)只能作表语、宾语补语或主语补语。再如:alike, afraid, aware, well(身体好)等。

注 2:连接表语从句的关联词不限于 that;若出现疑问词,则不再用 that。[] (详查目录中语法目录“表语从句”(目录第 11 页)。)

注 3:有时不及物动词或被动态谓语后接形容词或名词,也可将它们一起理解为复合谓语(见上述第 4,6,9,10,12,14,15,16 句)。

宾语 (包括直接宾语、间接宾语、介词宾语、宾语从句、介词宾语从句和形式宾语 it)。

宾语表示动作的对象或承受者。它一般位于及物动词后面。但英语介词后也要求用介词宾语。

Did you buy a non-stick pan?(当时)你买了不粘锅吗?

She has a multimedia color TV. 她有一台多媒体彩色电视。

Have you ever seen a test tube baby?你见过试管婴儿吗?

a. We must continue deepening (或 to deepen) the reforms. 我们必须继续深化改革。(动名词短语或不定式短语作宾语。)

b. She didn't go out, and so escaped being seen.(那时)她不外出,因此避免了被人看见。(动名词被动态作宾语。)

How many times have we lowered interest rates? 我们降低利息有多少次了?

Would you like value-guaranteed savings? 你愿意要保值储蓄吗?

He has to improve himself to keep up with such senior engineers. 他务必提高自己才能跟得上这样一些高级工程师。(反身代词作宾语。)

I want to cross out the unnecessary words. 我想删去不必要的词。(不定式短语作宾语。out 也可置于宾语 words 后面。)

There is a light in the room. Please turn it on. 房间内有一盏灯。请把灯打开。(it 不能放在副词 on 后。)

注 1. 上句中宾语为人称代词宾格,则必须放在“动词+副词”所构成的成语动词中间。

They are in for the national college entrance examination. 他们在参加全国高等学校入学考试。(名词短语作介词 for 的宾语。)

For example, twice two is equal to four. 例如,二乘二等于四。(数词作介词宾语。)

I am glad of having met you. 我遇见你很高兴。(动名词完成式短语作介词宾语。)

注 2:以上两例是形容词要求固定的介词短语搭配。这在英语中很常见。

In the event of fire breaking out you must turn off the switch. 如遇火灾发生,你必须将开关断开。(复合结构作介词 of 的宾语,the switch 作 turn off 的宾语。)

There is a great hope of our finishing it tomorrow. 我们很有希望在明天完成这件事。(“物主代词 + -ing”构成的特殊的动名词短语或复合结构作介词宾语)

注 3:以上两例是“名词或物主代词+-ing短语”作介词的复合宾语。详见第 54节、 一、Ⅲ、C 和 ⅩⅣ、B 。

She wants Dr.Fang to buy an optical computer. 她要方博士买一台光计算机。

I did not notice him enter the classroom. 我没有注意他进入教室。(复合结构作动词的宾语。)

注 4:以上两句中是常见的“名词或代词+不定式短语”作复合宾语。详见第 53 节、二、Ⅳ。

I think that he referred you to this electronic dictionary. 我想他当时叫你查这本电子辞典。(连词 that 引出宾语从句。)

A solid is different from a liquid in that the solid has definite shape. 固体和液体不同点在于固体有一定的形状。(意译。由 that 引出介词 in 的宾语从句。也可理解为 in that… 引出原因状语从句。)

I know when he took issue with you on this subject. 我知道他什么时候就该课题同你发生了争论。(从句作宾语,由于出现疑问词 when,不再用连词that. )

What do you know about how he studies? 关于他学习得怎样,你知道些什么呢?(从句作介词宾语,由于出现疑问词 how,不再用连词 that。)

注 5:引导宾语从句的关联词不限于 that,when,how 引导介词宾语从句的介词也不限于 in。

注 6:少数动词的宾语可能是和动词具有相同词根的同源名词。例如:

1) We are living a happy life. 我们正过着一种幸福的生活。

2) She smiled a pleasant smile. 她高兴地笑了笑。

注 7:注意有时先用 it 作形式宾语,后面再出现真正的宾语(详见第 057 节、一、B)。例如:

1) He’ll leave it to you to decide where to spend your holidays. 他将留给你去决定度假的地点。

2) You can count on (或 upon) it that your daughter will study as hard as possible. 你可以指望你的女儿会尽力用功学习。

间接宾语

有些及物动词,如 give(给)等,需要两个宾语。其中一个指物,另一个多半指人。指物的叫直接宾语,指人的叫间接宾语,但在科技英语中,也有两个都指物。间接宾语一般放在直接宾语之前。

I sent him an e-mail yesterday. 我昨天向他发了一个电子邮件。

Would you please tell me the way to the internet cafe. 请告诉我去因特网咖啡馆的路。

This pager cost me 300 yuan. 这个寻呼机花了我 300 元钱。(句中 me 为间接宾语,300 yuan 为状语。)

a. She showed me her pre-pay telephone card. 她给我看了她的电话磁卡。

b. The facts show us that we must develop our tertiary industries. 这些事实向我们表明,我们必须发展第三产业。(that 引出宾语从句。)

He gave me a work suit. 他给了我一件工作服。

注 1:并非所有及物动词都可有间接宾语的用法。能用直接宾语而不能用间接宾语的动词有:explain 解释,suggest 建议,announce 通告,express 表达,introduce 介绍,mention 提到,report 报告,say 说,shout 喊叫,point out 指出,describe 描述等。

注 2:有些及动物词的间接宾语可改用“有关介词+原来的间接宾语”表示,并置于直接宾语后面。例如:give a safety cap to sb. 给某人一顶安全帽;show the passport to sb. 把护照给某人看;buy a pocket-size camera for sb. 为某人买一架袖珍照相机,fetch some water for sb. 为某人打点水来,read letter to sb. 给某人读一封信等。

注 3:有些动词本身要求两个宾语,不习惯用介词短语代替其中一个宾语。例如:ask sb. a question 问某人一个问题,answer sb a question 回答某人一个问题,refuse sb the loan 拒绝向某人贷款,sing sb. a song 给某人唱一支歌等。

注 4:当直接和间接宾语均为人称代词时,最好用“动词 + 直接宾语 + 有关介词 + 原来的间接宾语。例如:I’ve bought an electronic watch. Please pass it to Derek. 我买了一块电子表。请把它转交给德立克。

注 5:复合宾语相当于“直接宾语+宾语补(足)语”。详见专题《宾语补(足)语及注意点》(第 141 节)。

定语(包括定语从句)和几个注意点

定语表示形式:修饰名词或代词的词、短语或从句,称为定语或定语从句。定语一般可由形容词、名词、代词、数词、名词所有格、不定式、动名词、现在分词、过去分词、介词短语、副词和从句等表示,按定语的不同位置可分为前置定语、后置定语、双层定语(见下文 III、B)和分割定语(见第 148 节十一、十二)定语从句分限制性和非限制性定语从句两种。后者还可修饰前面整个主句. 甚至目前已发展为由夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语(见第 69 节)。

I. 前置定语。

例如:our good manager 我们的好经理, my father and Mother’s friend 我父母亲的朋友,TV shopping 电视购物,the multi-media application debate 多媒体应用方面的讨论,technology intensive economy 科技密集型经济,three software companies 三家软件公司,two tons of coal 两吨煤,a broken window 一扇破窗,a dancing girl 一个正在跳舞的女孩,a smoking room 吸烟室,a never-increasing number of people 越来越多的人,the working people 劳动人民,the operating conditions 操作条件,the paper-making industry 造纸工业,man-made ice 人造冰,export-oriented economy 外向型经济,cause a demand for improved service 引起提高服务的要求(意译)等。

注 1:注意现在分词作前置定语的特点是:被修饰的人或物能产生前面 -ing 的动作。例如:the hard-working people 勤劳的人民,fast moving molecules 快速运动的分子等。动名词作前置定语的特点是:动名词仅表示后面被修饰的事物的用途或跟其有关的动作有关。例如:building materials 建筑(用的)材料,cooling water 冷却用水,the boiling temperature (或 point) of water 水的沸点(仪表示该温度与“沸腾”或“煮开”动作有关而已。若写 the boiling water,则为(这)正在沸腾的水;若写 the boiled water,就变为“(煮)开过的水”)。

注 2:不定式短语、形容词短语、定语从句、无连字符串起来的介词短语一般不作前置定语。

II. 夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语是名词作定语的新发展。参阅第 69 节。

注:比较级形容词短语破例作前置定语:CO2 is a heavier than air gas that neither burns nor supports combustion. 二氧化碳是一种比空气重的气体,它既不燃烧,又不助燃。(若将 heavier than air 放在 gas 后作后置定语,则定语从句的关系代词 that 就易被误解为修饰 air)

III. 有多个前置定语时的先后顺序通常如下:

限定词,如冠词,this,those 等指示代词、物主代词等。但要注意冠词有时不占首位的几种情况(参阅第 1 节、三、Ⅳ);

基数词、序数词;

一般描绘性的形容词,如 good,bad 等;

表示大小、高低、长短等形容词,如 big,small,high,tall,low,long,short 等;

表示形状的形容词,如 square,round 等;

表示老、中、青、新、旧等形容词,如 old,young,new 等;

表示颜色的形容词,如 red,white 等;

表示国籍或地区、产地等方面的形容词,如 Chinese,Japanese 等;

表示物质、材料等方面的形容词,如 rocky,wooden 等;

表示用途、类别方面的形容词,如 building materials 建筑(用的)材料,a writing desk 写字(用的)台,a used car 一辆旧车(即一辆使用过的或二手汽车)等。

必须指出,修饰名词的前置定语一般不会太多(通常不超过三、四个)如果有几个前置定语,大致可按上述顺序排列,允许循序跳着使用。与汉语比较,则和上述第 8 位的英语形容词的用法差别较大,应予以注意。

Ⅳ. 后置定语:后置定语又可分为限制性定语和非限制性定语两种。这两者在形式上的差别在于后者有逗号介于被修饰的词和后置定语之间,而在意义上的差别则在于:限制性定语对所修饰的词的关系较为密切依赖性大,而非限制性定语和所修饰的词的关系不密切,相互独立性大。若用从句表示定语则为定语从句。定语从句也有限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句之分。

A. 后置的限制性定语:

例如:a student operating the computer 一位正在操作计算机的学生,the impurities difficult to remove 那些难以除去的杂质,the ability to do work 作功的本领,at tend the Internet Symposium held in China 参加在中国举行的因特网讨论会,sell state-owned apartments to the residents at prices compatible with their income level 以与工资收入水平相应的价格向居民出售共有住房,something new in her paper 她论文中的一些新内容,heat used to evaporate the water 用以蒸发这水的热量,firends from home and abroad 国内外的朋友,relatives overseas 海外亲戚,China Today 今日中国[以上两例为副词作后置定语],establish a new type of international economic relations featuring mutual benefit, mutual support and common development 建立新型的互利、互补、共同发展的国际经济关系,There is nothing the matter with your wireless pager. 你的无线寻呼机没有毛病。Anyone with a desktop computer and a modem connecting it to a phone line can Now find ways into the network. 任何人只要有一架台式计算机和一台与电话线连接的调制器,就可获得入网通道。It was the first Internet club established in Northwest China. 当时这是中国西部成立的第一个因特网俱乐部。Video conferencing is gradually becoming an accepted means in which to do business. 电视会议正逐渐成为一种大家认可的开展业务的手段。

B. 后置的限制性定语从句和双层定语。例如:

We must write the programs that allow a computer to perform specific functions. 我们必须编写出让电脑执行某些专门功能的程序。

The company is making the new products which sell well in the computer retail business. 这家公司正在制造在计算机零售业中畅销的新产品。

There are hardly any major industries that do not rely to some degree on electronic brains. 几乎没有任何的主要的工业是不依赖电脑的。

If pirating persisted, the money (that) people needed to develop new software would simply not be forth coming. 假如盗版持续下去,人们用于开发软件所需的资金就断了来源。(关系代词 that 还可省略。)

Can you introduce to me any one that we know who is as clever as she? 你能向我推荐一个像她一样聪明又是我们都认识的人吗?(that 引出的定语从句修饰 one,而 who 引出的定语从句则说明 anyone that we know 整个内容,故称为双层定语。)

When you get a personal E-mail address, you can receive and send messages to people (whom) you know and those (whom) you want to know. 当你获得个人的电子邮件地址时,你就能收到信息并给你认识的人和想认识的人发送信息。(两个并列的限制性定语从句)

Web broadcasting could change the way (in which) publishers as advertisers look at the Internet. 网络广播可以改变出版商作为广告商时对因特网的看法。

Air moves from places where the pressure is high to places where the pressure is low. 空气从气压高的地方流向气压低的地方。(两个从句都为定语从句,说明各自前面的 places。)

They are the generation who grew up playing computer games and who had an e-mail address by the time they finished their high school. 他们是这样一代人,即玩着电脑游戏长大并且高中毕业时已有自己的电子邮件地址。(两个 who 并列地引出限制性定语从句。句末时间从句仅和第二个定语从句有关。)

The disk is the medium where (或 on which) information is stored. 磁盘是一个存贮信息的介质。

C. 非限制性定语和非限制定语从句

We have to master a whole set of rules for how to behave, called netiquette. 我们务必学会一套叫做网上礼节的言行规范。

To climb the pole, cold and wet with snow, was no easy task. 攀登那根沾着雪又冷又湿的柱子,不是件容易事。

At the center of each atom there is nucleus, in which are found mainly protons, possessing a positive electric charge, and neutrons, possessing no charge. 每个原子中心处有一个原子核,核内主要发现有带正电的质子和不带电的中子。(现在分词短语作非限制性后置定语。)

Our forces, now in control of all the bridgeheads, were ready to take the city. 我们的部队这时已控制了所有的桥头堡,正准备占据城市。(介词短语作非限制性后置定语。)

The mouse, which was devised to make operating a computer easy, is a small, hand-held unit that, when moved around on a flat pad, moves an arrow to the required position on the screen. 鼠标是为了使电脑操作简便而设计的。它是一个可用手握住的小装置。当你在平面上挪动鼠标时,它能使屏幕上的箭头移动到你所要求的位置。(which was devised…easy 为非限制性定语从句。that 引出的定语从句包含一个时间状语从句。When 后省略 it is,而 it 指 that 所代表的 unit 而言。)

Aluminium combines high tensile strength with lightness of weight, which makes it important in aircraft construction. 铝兼有抗拉强度大与重量轻的特点,这就使得它在飞机制造上变得很重要。(which 代替主句整个意思,引出非限制性定语从句。)

The machine, as might be expected,has stopped operating. 不出所料,机器停止了操作。(as 引出非限制性定语从句)

We will put off the test until next week, when the weather may be better. 我们要将试验延期到下周,那时天气也许会更好些。(when 引出非限制性定语从句。)

In 1953 he came to Tianjin, where he has lived ever since. 他是 1953 年来天津的,从那时起他一直住在天津。(where 引出非限制性定语从句。)

I met the boat man, who then took me across the ferry. 我遇见了船夫,他把我从渡口渡到对岸。(who 引出非限制性定语从句。)

状语(包括状语从句)

І. 状语的主要功用:

状语多半说明句中动词。这里只讨论状语表示地点、时间、原因、目的、结果、条件、让步、程度、方式、伴随情况等用法。

The dust particles will soon settle down. 尘粒不久会沉降下来。(时间)

a. Your mobile phone is one centimetre longer than mine. 你的移动电话比我的长一厘米。(程度)

b. Light wave length is only a few millionths of an inch long. 光的波长只有百万分之几英寸长。(同上)

c. Your explanation is correct to some extent. 你的解释在某种程度上是正确的。(程度)

The lamp is swinging back and forth. 灯在前后摆动。(方式)

The signs and symbols in mathematics ate used for convenience. 为了方便起见,使用数学中的标记和符号(目的)

Carbon unites with oxygen to form (或 forming) CO and CO2. 碳与氧化合,生成 CO 和 CO2。

Under proper conditions the speed of the machine will be slowed down. 在适当条件下,机器速度将减慢。(条件)

In spite of the difficulties, we continued to do our test. 尽管有困难,我们(当时)仍继续进行试验。(让步)

The soldiers dashed forward, machine-gun in hand. 战士们手提着机枪向前冲去。(伴随情况)

In the box there ate a pair of scissors, two pieces of glass, and so on(或 and so forth). 箱子里有一把剪子,两块玻璃以及其他等等。(地点)

A large amount of energy is wasted in machines due to friction. 大量能量由于摩擦而消耗在机器内。(原因)

They were out working already. 他们已出去并在干活了。(伴随情况)

Electricity is most widely used mainly because it is easily transmitted. 电使用最广,主要是因为电容易输送。(mainly 修饰后面整个原因状语从句。)

II. 状语表示法:

A. 副词及副词性词组作状语:

Light travels most quickly. 光传得最快。

Enterprises of tertiary industries and Hi-tech companies are going up here and there. 第三产业企业和高科技公司到处都不断涌现出来。

《Computers》is difficult, but I like to study it all the more. 《计算机》难,但我仍然喜欢学。

He is quite old; none the less he works like a young man. 他虽然很老了,但还像年轻人那样工作。

B. 名词或名词性词组作状语:

We increased the production of steel last year. 去年我们增加了钢的产量。

Work is done when a force acts on a body and moves it a certain distance. 当一个力作用于物体上并把它移动一定距离时,就作了功。

The machine weighs 100 lb. 该机器重100磅。

He reached the station 5 minutes later. 他晚到车站五分钟。(句中 5 minutes 说明副词 later。)

The Yangtze River is world famous. 长江是世界闻名的。(句中 world 说明形容词 famous。)

C. 介词短语作状语:

This X-ray apparatus has been in operation for two years. 该 X 光机已运行两年了。

We should on no account (或 should not on any account) neglect our physical exercises. 我们决不应忽视体育锻炼。

She will in no wise give up study. 她决不放弃学习。

We do everything with the view (或 aim) of serving the people. 我们做一切事情,都抱着为人民服务的目的。

With the first appearance of the sun, the birds begin to sing. 太阳一出,鸟就开始唱歌。

At the thought of his words, they took courage and fought on. 一想到他的话,他们就有了勇气,并继续战斗下去。

He won't go at all risks. 他不会冒一切危险前去。

At all events, you ought not to stay here. 无论如何,你不应当留在这里。

She is living at No. 305 in the Tianjin Hotel. 她住在天津饭店 305 号房间。

He did it in a certain way. 他用某种方法办了这件事。

D. 动词不定式作状语(详见第 053 二、Ⅶ):

(In order) To calculate the amount of work done, we multiply the force by the distance. 为了计算所作功的数值,我们将力乘以距离。(目的状语)

CO combines with oxygen to form CO2. 一氧化碳和氧化合,便生成二氧化碳。(结果状语)

It is too manifest to need a word of argument. 太明白了,无须说话解释。(程度状语)

We are proud to have won first place. 我们因赢得第一而感到自豪。(原因状语)

注:有时甚至还用“名词+不定式”构成的复合结构作状语。例如:Here is the first volume, the second one to come out next month. 这里是第一卷,而第二卷下月问世。

E. 过去分词、现在分词短语(包括独立分词结构)作状语(详见第 37 节、一、Ⅵ 和 Ⅶ. A. (a),第 54节、一Ⅳ、D 和 XIV、A )。

If there is a letter, you read it eagerly, pleased that your friend has thought of you. 假如有一封来信,你如饥似渴地读着信,并为你的朋友惦你而感到高兴。

Starting with very simple equipment, they have produced a great number of transistors. 由简陋的设备起家(原义“着手”),他们已生产了大量晶体管。

a. Seen from an aeroplane, this would look like a great green sea. 从飞机上看,这像是一大片碧绿的海。

b. Looking from an aeroplane, you would see a great green sea. 从飞机上看,你会看到一大片碧绿的海。(从a,b句中可看到句首分词和主语有语态关系。)

Electrons being taken away,a body becomes charged. 由于移走了电子,物体就变为带电了。(独立分词结构)

This (being) done, Joe went online. 这事做完后,乔就上网了。(同上)

The test (being) over, we went to the computer center. 试验完毕后,我们就去计算机中心。(同上)

Supper (being) ready, they came to the table. 晚餐准备好了,他们便向饭桌走去。(同上)

The oil having been used up, the car stopped. 油用完后,汽车就停了下来。(同上)

F. 用逗号隔开的形容词短语作状语:

Being fatally ill, the boy was taken to the hospital. 那个男孩因病重被送往医院。

John, fatally ill (=who was fatally ill), sent for a doctor. 约翰因病重派人去请医生。

The scientists are searching, eager for truth. 科学家们为渴望真理而进行探索。

从上面第1、2句中可看出,这里的形容词短语是由前加 being 或由非限制性定语从句演变并紧缩而成的。现在它已可直接用作状语(见第 3 句)。

G. 从句作状语:

When we are speaking of power, time is taken into account. 谈到功率时,我们已考虑了时间。(时间状语从句)

There is air all around us although we cannot see it. 我们周围到处有空气,虽然我们看不见它。(让步状语从句)

We can find out the amount of x because y and z are known quantities. 由于 y 和 z 是已知量,因此我们能求出x值。(原因状语从句)

Seeing that (= Since) the chemical composition of matter remains unchanged, this is not a chemical change. 既然物质的化学组成仍保持不变,这就不是化学变化。(原因状语从句)

Once you begin, you must continue. 一旦开始,你就得继续下去。(条件状语从句)

It is very difficult to live where there is little water. 在没有多少水的地方,生活是十分艰难的。(地点状语从句)

We must strive for further progress in order that we may serve the people better. 我们必须继续求取进步,以便能更好地为人民服务。(目的状语从句)

Just as the kilometer is the unit of length, so the ohm is the practical unit of resistance. 正像公里是长度的单位那样,欧姆就是电阻的实际单位。(方式状语从句)

If we make a gap in the circuit the current will not be able to flow. 如果我们在电路里造成间隙,电流就不能流通。(条件状语从句)

Through long power lines, electricity goes where (it is) needed. 电通过很长的电线,输送到需要电的地方。(地点状语从句)

注 1 :状语从句多半允许省略与主句相同的主语及其相应的 be 的变化形式(见第 10 句)。详见第 145节、二。

注 2:时间状语从句和条件状语从句不能用将来时态,要用现在时的相应时态代替将来时的相应时态(见第 9 句和第 本节、五中的注)。

注 3:引导状语从句的连词很多。有时甚至无连词,但仍是状语从句。例如:Be it late, I want to do another experiment. 虽然很晚了,但我还想再做一个实验。

III. 各种状语和状语从句在句中的位置

A. very,pretty,rather,quite,fairly可以修饰后面的形容词或副词以表示程度。其各自表示的强烈程度正好按上述词的顺序递减。

She works very hard. 她工作十分努力。

Jenny has bought a pretty (或 rather) large motorboat. 詹妮已经买了一辆很大的汽艇。(这艘汽艇不如 a very large motorboat 大,但比 a quite 或 fairly large motorboat 大。)

注 1:其中 fairly 不能用于坏的方面,例如不说 ※fairly stupid, ※fairly dangerous 等。

注 2:其中只有 quite 和 fairly 还可置于不定冠词的前面。例如:It is rather (或 quite) a cold day. 这是个颇冷(或较冷)的一天。

注 3:其中只有 quite 和 rather 还可和动词和介词短语搭配在一起。例如:

1)Sorry, we don't quite agree with you. 对不起,我们不完全同意你。

2)I quite (或 rather) like to swim in the morning. 我颇喜欢在上午游泳。

3)They both went off. It was rather like going on a honeymoon. 他俩走了。这颇像去度蜜月。

注 4:其中只有 rather 可和比较级以及“too + 形容词、副词”可连用,而 quite 只能和比较级 better 连用。例如:

1)This spacecraft is rather smaller than I thought. 这艘宇宙飞船比我原先想的小了不少。

2)She felt quite (或 rather) better last night. 昨夜她感到好多了。

3)The computer is rather too difficult for me to operate. 这台计算机让我操作就太难太难了。

B. 表示频度或持续含义等的副词(如 often, frequently, rarely, regularly, seldom, certainly, sometimes, usually, continually, ordinarily, ever, never 等)一般置于复合谓语中第一个助动词或情态动词的后面。often 和 sometimes 有时仍可位于它们前面。如果单用助动词而省略了后面的谓语动词,则上述副词必须置于助动词之前。

I will never forget what happened yesterday. 我永远不会忘记昨天发生的事。

"Are you always in high spirits?" I always (或 usually) am. “你总是情绪很高吗?”——“我平时就情绪很高。”

She is ill and must often be tired. 她有病,一定常感到疲倦。(但也可说… and often must be tired. )

He certainly did praise me. 他当然确实表扬了我。(这里副词必须位于强凋肯定语气的 did 前面。)

a. She doesn't really like such a child. 她不怎么喜欢这样一个小孩。

b. I really don't like such a boy. 我实在不喜欢这个男孩。(注意 a,b 句意思有所不同。)

She probably will not go to Microsoft. = She’ll probably not go to Microsoft. 她可能不会去微软公司。(若用简略的否定式 won't,则 Probably 只能用于 won't 前面。)

C. 表示好坏的评价性副词多半用于句末部分。若用于修饰分词,则放在分词前面。例如:

She speaks French fluently. 她讲法语很流利。

The boy plays tennis badly. 这男孩网球打得不好.

The girl has been ill-treated. 这女孩已受到虐待。

This is well-known multinational (或 multi state) corporation. 这是一家著名的跨国公司。

D. 表示方式的副词 (如 rapidly, slowly 等) 和介词短语(如 by plane, in Sucha way 等)常置于句末部分。有时也可位于复合谓语中间,极少位于动词前面。

We drive a car slowly at night. 我们夜间开车慢。

They are going to carry out their research in such a way. 他们准备用这样一种方法来进行研究。

They are transporting these advanced computers by air. 他们正在空运这些先进的计算机。

I will in no way give up this chance. 我决不放弃这个机会。(介词短语位于复合谓语中间。)

It has been a long time since I last saw him. 自从我最后一次见到他,这已有很长一段时间了。

E. 表示地点或时间的状语一般位于句末或句首。若在句末,这两个状语顺序大多是先地点状语,后时间状语。

Yesterday they played video games in the club. 昨天他们在俱乐部玩了电子游戏。(Yesterday 也可置于句末。)

IBM introduced a new generation of portable computers in U. S. A. last month. 国际商业机器公司上月在美国推出新一代的提携式计算机。

F. only 说明哪一成份,它就放在该成份前面。但副词 alone 作 only 讲,必须放在所说明的名词或代词后面。

She only behaved like that when she was angry. 她只是在生气时才那样表现。(only 也可位于 when 前面。)

Man alone (或 Only man)can design still (或 even) more advanced computers. 只有人类才能设计更加先进的计算机。

G. 可以说 the very smallest particle(最最小的粒子),若用 by far 或 easily 表示类似意思,则必须写成easily(或 by far)the smallest particle。

Ⅳ. 状语从句在句中的位置:它们常位于主句的前面或后面,若位于主句的主语或谓语中间,则从句前后用逗号跟主句主语和谓语隔开。状语从句插入主句复合谓语中间较少见。详见状语从句的有关连词(如 when, if, though 等专题)。

I’ll stay at home if it rains in the afternoon. = If it rains in the afternoon, I’ll stay at home. 如果下午下雨,我就呆在家里。

a. These boys, if they listen to their teacher’s advice, may study very well. 这些男孩如果听老师的忠告,可能会学习很好。

b. Those students may, if they study diligently, get good marks in the exams. 如果那些学生勤奋学习,他们是可能在考试中取得良好成绩的。

谓语在形式上和主语协调的十四种情况

一般说来,英语的谓语形式是随主语的人称、单复数以及动作的时态、语态而变的。这里结合中国人学英语的特点,介绍英语的主语和谓语在下列十四种非一般的情况下如何协调的问题。

一、两个作主语用的名词或代词由 either… or, neither… nor, not only… but… 等连接时,谓语动词应按后一个主语的人称和数而变

Either he or I am to get online. 不是他就是我要去上网。

Neither the students nor the teacher knows anything about this matter. 学生们和教师都不知道这件事。

Neither rain not snow nor sleet keeps the postman from delivering our letters. 雨雪,和冰雹都不能阻挡邮递员给我们送信。

Not only air, but natural gas consists of some substances. 不仅空气,而且天然气也是由若干种物质组成的。

注:注意疑问句中有点例外。例如:Are either you or he to go on-line? 是你还是他去上网呢?

二、主语是单数,而后面跟有 as well as, with, together with. along with, besides, in addition to, but(作介词用),like, unlike, including, except, rather than 等词或短语连用时,谓语动词仍用单数形式

Air as well as water is matter. 空气和水(一样)都是物质。

She as well as the other students has learned how to use an internet protocol phone. 她和其他学生一样,也学会了如何使用网络电话(或 IP 电话)。

Our chemical works, with some few factories, was built in 1979. 我们的化工厂和少数几个工厂是建于 1979 年。

A professor, together (或 along) with some students, was moved into a new laboratory. 一位教授和几个学生搬到新实验室里去了。

a. Nobody but (或 except) the students is in the classroom. 只有学生在教室里。

b. None but the teachers are having a meeting in the room. 只有老师在房间里开着会。(用 are 为宜。)

c. There are nothing but boy-students playing chess in the classroom. 只有男生在教室里下棋。(同上)

Fuel like oil and coal gives out much heat. 像石油和煤那样的燃料能放出许多热。

In addition to Joy, his mother is going to the software development company. 除了乔以外,他的母亲也打算去软件开发公司。

His mother, rather than his friends, comes and sees the test tube baby everyday. 是他的母亲而不是他的朋友每天来看望这个试管婴儿。

No one, besides you and Jessica, is going to the cinema together with us. 除了你和杰西卡以外,无人打算和我们一起去看电影。

三、把作主语用的集合名词作为一个整体看待时,谓语可用单数,若就其中各个成员来考虑,则谓语可用复数

a. The committee was made up of ten members. (那时)委员会由十人组成。

b. The committee were in the room. (当时)委员们都在室内。

The majority of our class is(或are)going to AT&T. 我班大多数人准备去美国电话电报公司。

a. The team is entirely composed of women. 这个队全部由妇女组成。

b. The team were taken to the theater in four automobiles. 队员们分乘四辆汽车被送往剧场。

The public are interested in the information technology. 公众对信息技术感兴趣。

注 1:像 the rich(富人),the poor(穷人)等作主语时,可理解为表示这类或那类人,其谓语要用复数形式。

注 2:注意根据上下文考虑具体情况。例如:

1)Of those two men the former is dead, but the latter is still alive. 这两人中前者已死,但后者还活着。

2)Television, like other things, has both advantages and disadvantages. Do the former out weigh the latter? 像其它东西那样,电视既有优点也有缺点。前者是否超过后者?

四、表示数字、时间、钱额、重量、公里等的名词复数作主语时,谓语仍可用单数

Two hours is enough for us to perform this experiment. 由我们做完这个实验,两小时就够了。

Twice three makes (或 equals, is equal to) six. 二三得六。

Two yuan is too cheap for this book. 这本书两元钱太便宜。

There is ten kilograms of rice in the kitchen. 厨房里有十公斤米。

Three metres is a short distance. 三米是个短距离。

五、不可数名词前面有表示种类等复数含义的词或“a large number 等 + of“修饰时,其谓语常用复数形式

There are many kinds of water in nature. 自然界内有许多种水。(这里显然指雨水、井水、河水、海水、地下水……而言。若用 there is five tons of water,则指水的数量有五吨,而没指出它的种类多。)

A great many (或 A large number) of compounds do exist in nature. 许多(或大量)化合物确实存在于自然界中。

六、虽用 and 连接两个主语,但指的是同一人、物或同一概念时,谓语仍用单数形式

A states man and poet was present at the meeting. 有一个政治家兼诗人出席了会议。

Bread and butter is a healthy food. 白脱面包是一种有营养的食品。

The wheel and axle is a rotating lever. 轮和轴是一个转动杠杆。

When the block and tackle was used, a force of 250 grams lifted a 1000 gram weight. 当时使用了滑车组, 250 克的力举起了重 1000 克的东西。

七、用“every, each, no, many a (或 a great deal of) 或 more than one + 单数名词“作主语时,谓语用单数,而用“a great many (或 a great number of 等)+ 复数名词”时,谓语则用复数

Every man and (every) woman attends the meeting. 男的、女的都参加这个会。(句中还可用 each 代替 every,但谓语形式仍不变。)

Many a student and teacher is having practice in this plant. 许多学生和教师正在该厂实习。

A great deal of our time was spent on this test. 我们很多时间花费在这项试验上。(a great deal of 后常接不可数名词,其谓语相应形式必然为单数形式。)

No sulfur and no phosphorus is present in this product. 该产物中不存在硫和磷。

There are a great many (或 a large number of) animals in nature. 自然界中有许多动物。

Every change of season, every change of weather makes some change in the wonderful colors and shapes of these mountains. 每次季节的变化,每次天气的变化都在使这些山脉的奇异色彩和形状发生某种变化。(这里 makes 原义是“产生”、“造成”。)

Each proton and each neutron has almost the same mass as any other proton or neutron. 每一个质子和申子所具有的质量与任何其它的质子和中子几乎相同。

More than one student is learning to operate different types of computers. 不止一个学生在学习操作各种型式的计算机。

注 1:注意与 many a student, each student and teacher 等相应的代词也要用第三人称单数。例如:

1)Many a girl-student studies diligently. I think she will get good marks in the exams. 许多女生学习勤奋。我认为她们将获得很好的考试成绩。

2)Each student and teacher must sign his name on the grade sheet before submitting it. 每个学生和教师必须在送交成绩单之前在单子上签字。

注 2:each 作前面主语复数名词的同位语时,后面的谓语仍按复数形式表示。

例如:These steel works each produce ten million tons of steel a year. 这些钢厂每年各生产 1000 万吨钢。

注 3:指代“every + 名词”的代词,在比较正式的英语文体中,常用第三人称单数的代词或物主代词表示,但在口语中却常用相应的第三人称复数形式表示。这种用法常可推广到 anyone, anybody, somebody, someone, nobody, noone, a person, whoever 等。

1)In these eases everybody has their right to stop you from smoking. 在这些情况下,每个人都有权制止你吸烟。

2)If anybody calls, tell them I’m out. 如果有人来电话,就告诉他,我外出了。

3)Whoever comes, tell them to keep off the grass. 不论谁来,都告诉他勿踏草地。(意译)

4)When a person doesn't want to live on, they are often difficult to listen to such advice. 当一个人不想活下去时,常很难听从这样的劝告。

5)Nobody came here while I was out,did they?当我外出时,没有人来这里吧?

八、有些名词只有复数形式,可根据谓语单复数、上下文等来判别其主语所表示的事物的实际单复数

a. The cement works was set up in 1958. 这个水泥厂建于 1958 年。

b. The cement works are near the station. 这些水泥厂在火车站附近。

a. In our country, the working people are living a happy life. 在我国,劳动人民过着幸福的生活。

b. The peoples of the world are at peace. 这是一个勤劳的民族。

c. The peoples of the world at peace. 世界各国人民和睦相处。

a. All possible means have been tried. 一切可能用的方法(或手段)都已试过。

b. This means to an end is very good. 这种达到目的的方法是很好的。

The Canterbury Tales was an interesting book. 《坎特伯雷故事集》是一本有趣的书。(虽然书名用复数,但书毕竟是一本,故谓语仍用单数形式。)

注 1:有些名词只有复数形式,无相应单数形式,其谓语也只能用复数形式。例如:clothes(衣服),cattle(牲口),savings(存款),thanks(感谢),police(警察),valuables(贵重物品,财物),vermin(害虫)等。

注 2:属于以-s结尾的学科或病名,其谓语也只能用单数形式。例如 physics(物理),mathematics(数学)。Politics(政治),statistics(统计学),mechanics(力学,机械学),electronics(电子学),measles(麻疹),shingles(带状疤疹)等。

九、由两个对称部分组成的 scissors(剪子),shorts(运动短裤),glasses(眼镜),compasses(圆规),scales(天平)等为复数名词,其相应谓语用复数形式。注意 shoe(鞋),sock(短袜),stocking(长袜)具有单复数形式。其单数用谓语单数形式,而其复数名词前加 a pair of 时,则谓语应该用单数形式

The pincers are very nice. 这把(或这些)钳子很好。(只能根据上下文判断实际上是一把还是两把以上钳子。)

a. My glasses were bought here last week. 我的眼镜是上周在这里买的。

b. There is a pair of glasses beside the bottle of ink on the table. 在桌上那瓶墨水旁边有一副眼镜。

c. There are two glasses on the table. 桌上有两只玻璃杯。

d. There is a sheet of glass on the table. 桌上有一块玻璃。

注:本项内有些词和 glasses 一样,使用其单数名词时,其词义有变化。例如 a compass 一个指南针,a scale 一个秤盘或一个刻度等。

十、“there be + 并列主语”和“here be + 并列主语”结构中的谓语形式,也可随并列主语中的第一个主语的单数形式来变,当然更可用复数形式

There is a pen and a pager on the desk. 桌上有一枝钢笔和一个寻呼机。(当然更可用 there are 代之。)

At that time there was only a teacher and a student in the room. 那时房间里只有一个教师和一个学生。(当然更可用 there were 代之。)

Here is a letter and an electronic dictionary for you. 这里有一封信和一本电子辞典是给你的。(也可用 are 代替 is。)

十一、none 作主语时,谓语可用单数或复数。若与可数名词有关,谓语多半用复数形式,若与不可数名词连用,则谓语用单数形式

None knows (或 know) a great deal about this new theory. 没有一个人对这种新的理论知道很多。

None has (或 have) been found. 一个都没有找到。

Three guests are expected, but none have arrived. 期待三位客人光临,但无一个到场。

There are faults from which none of us are free. 有些错误我们任何人都不能避免。

None of this money is mine. 这笔钱没有一点是我的。

I wanted some string but there was none in the classroom. 当时我想要一些绳子,但教室里一点也没有。

十二、根据实际情况采用相应的谓语单复数形式

There are 30 students in your class. Part of you are studying Japanese while the rest(或 the remainder)are working at other foreign languages. 你们班有 30 个学生:其中一部分在学日语,其余学生则在学其它一些外语。

Sure enough, the majority of teachers were caught in the rain and became wet through and through. 果然,多数教师遇雨而被浇湿全身。

a. A great variety (或 A great quantity) of products were made by our factory last year. 我厂去年生产了很多品种(或大量)的产品。(句中 quantity 也可用 number 代替)

b. A large quantity of distilled water is produced here every day. 每天在这里生产大量的蒸馏水。(由于 water 是不可数名词,不可用 number 代替 quantity。)

c. There are not a few kinds of water in nature. 自然界有不少种水。(在不可数名词前常加多个种类的词以体现其复数,这时其谓语要用复数。)

The number of books in the reading-room is not very great. 阅览室内的图书数量不是很大。

The United States of America is an economic superpower. 美利坚合众国是一个经济超级大国。(由 50 个州组成的美国仍然只是一个国家。)

十三、注意 when, if 等的省略句中所省略的主语有时不是主句中的主语(试与第 145节第二项中的省略句比较)

According to the molecular theory the speed of the molecules is increased when (the molecules are) heated. 根据分子理论,当(分子)受热时,分子速度就增加。

The color of the copper oxide changes if(the copper oxide is)heated in hydrogen. 若在氢气中加热氧化铜,氧化铜的颜色就变。

This became apparent when(we were)studying Fig.2. 学习图 2 时这点就明白了。

十四、在极少数情况下,分词短语作状语时,其逻辑主语(一般都不表示出来)却不是主句中的主语

Having overcome all the difficulties on the way of improving the performance of the engine, there is a very reason to believe it to replace the old one. 克服了在改进发动机性能的过程中的困难以后,就有真正理由确信它能代替旧的发动机。(主语 reason 显然不能作“克服困难”的逻辑主语,但却和后面不定式 to believe 的逻辑主语是一致的。)

Dealing with the physical sciences, we must deal with matter and energy. 研究物理学时,我们必须与物质和能量打交道。(与上句不同,这里现在分词短语作状语,其逻辑主语和句中主语是一致的。这是一般情况。)

介词短语在句中的用法和判别

一、介词和介词短语的形式

介词的形式可以是单个的词,如 at, in, by, of 等;也可以由几个词组成,如 out of(出自;在…外),instead of(代替;而不是),because of(由于),in spite of(尽管),by means of(借助于)等;还可以由某些动词的分词形式转化成介词,如 considering(考虑到),including(包括),regarding(关于)等。

介词不能独立担任句子成分,而必须与名词、代词、数词、动名词构成介词短语,有时还可以把副词、介词短语、复合结构和从句作为介词的宾语(参阅第 138 节宾语例 10~14 等)。兹举例如下:

They are friends of the Chinese people. 他们是中国人民的朋友。(介词+名词)

Everything around us is matter. 我们周围的每个东西都是物质。(介词+代词)

Everything divides into two. 事物都是一分为二的。(介词+数词)

They work at the instruments factory near here. 他们在这里附近的仪表厂工作。(介词+副词。本结构详见第 140、一。)

After reading the book, I got to know something about internet phones. 把这本书读完之后,我开始对因特网电话有所了解。(介词+动名词短语)

It is understood that this machine is out of action. 不用说,这台机器坏了。(复合介词+名词)

The effects vary from (being) negligible, if below the concentration range, to deadly if above. 如果低于该浓度范围,效果是微不足道的;如果高于该范围,则效果是致命的。(介词+动名词短语。注意 from 和 to 之间插入条件从句,并且有省略成份。)

With water transformed into steam, the locomotive gains a motive force. (等于 As water is transformed into steam,… )随着水变成蒸汽,机车获得了动力。(介词+复合结构)

She is well-qualified in typing and very efficient at her work. 她打字完全合格并且工作十分有效。(介词+动名词或名词)

John is slow at understanding, but you have to be patient with him. 约翰理解慢,但你得耐心对待他。(同上)

a. She is angry with her child. 她跟她的孩子生气。(介词+名词)

b. She is angry about her child staying out so late. 她对她的小孩在外逗留那么晚感到生气。(about 接一个复合结构。)

c. They were angry at being asked such a question. 他们对被提问这样一个问题而感到生气。(at 接一个被动态的动名词短语。)

从上述 a,b,c 三句中可看出,根据不同的需要,形容词 angry 后面用了三个不同的介词来表示三种不同的情况。

注 1:介词后的复合结构类型不少,详见第 54 节、一、ⅩⅣ B 例 5~11,13,14,和 C。

I know little concerning (或 touching) the computer viruses. 关于这些计算机病毒我知道很少。(由分词转来的介词+名词)

Power can be transmitted to wherever it is needed. 电力能输送到需用电的任何地方。(介词+介词宾语从句)

注 2:单独由介词通过连词 that 引出介词宾语从句的并不多见(仅 except that…,besides that…,in that… 等几个),后接由疑问词引出的介词宾语从句较为常见。

1)I know nothing about him except that he lives next door. 除了他住在隔壁以外,我对他一无所知。

2)Besides that he used the computer, he repaired it when it was out of order. 他不仅使用了这台计算机,并且当计算机发生故障时还进行了修理。

3)We disagreed in that the plan was not practical. 当时我们不同意是由于该计划不切合实际。(也可理解为引出原因从句。)

注 3:大多数介词是通过疑问词引出介词宾语从句的,较少数通过先行代词 it, 再由 that 引出介词宾语从句,极少数直接由 that 引出介词宾语从句。例如:

1)What do you know about how rain and snow are formed? 关于雨雪怎样形成,你知道些什么呢?

2)One of the more serious problems is that of what measures we can take to get more fresh water. 较为严重的问题之一是我们采取什么措施才能获得更多的淡水(that 代表前面 problems 中的单数。)

3)They can count on it that you will help them overcome the difficulty. 他们可以指靠你们帮助他们克服困难。

4)He agrees on it that I shall go to Beijing on business. 他同意我去北京出差。

5)We insist (on it) that he (should) be present at the conference. 我们不坚持要他出席会议。

6)The accident couldn't have happened except that it did. 那事故本来不可能发生,但却发生了。

注 4:任意“疑问词+不定式”在句中可以顶一个名词用,作介词的宾语,而介词 except 和 but 还可用带 to 或不带 to 的不定式动词作为介词宾语。

1)He didn't know anything about how to go abroad for further studies. 当时他对于如何出国深造一无所知。

2)The question of where to learn spoken Chinese is quite important. 在哪里学汉语口语的问题是很重要的。

3)I cannot choose but (或 except) to go there by air. 我别无选择,只能坐飞机去那里。

4)She will do anything but come here once more. 她绝不再次到这里来。(介词 but 前出现 do,故后面不定式动词就不带 to。)

二、介词短语在句中的作用

Ⅰ. 作定语:

The formula for kinetic energy is applicable to any object that is moving. 动能公式可适用于任何运动的物体。

Did you like the last grand fashion show of the 20th century? 你(当时)喜欢 20 世纪最后一次盛大的服装展览吗?

A hydrogen molecule consists only of two hydrogen atoms with the same atomic weight. 氢分子仅由两个原子量相同的氢原子所组成。

注意有些介词短语表示数量(包括倍数)的范围,可用作前置定语。例如:

To evaporate 1 lb of water from a solution, form 1,000 to 1,200 Btu is needed, and this calls for from 1 to 1.3 lb of steam. 从溶液中蒸发出1磅水,需要 1000 到 1200 英热单位,而这就需要 l 到 1.3 磅水蒸汽。

II. 作状语:

In these circumstances the potential energy turns to kinetic energy. 在这些情况下,位能变为动能。

In large amounts petroleum is used for manufacturing many chemicals. 石油大量地用于制造许多化工产品。(若将 in large amounts 挪到句末,则它就说明动名词 manufacturing。)

In spite of the difficulties, we went on with our work. 尽管有困难,当时我们仍继续工作。

We should on no account (或 should not on any account) neglect our daily physical exercises. 我们决不应该忽视每天的体育锻炼。

We must never for a moment divorce ourselves from the masses. 我们永远一刻也不脱离群众。

Jenny lives across the street from us. 詹妮住在我们街道对面。

Such strange animals have at times been seen. 这样一些奇怪的动物有时就见到。

III. 作表语:

Alloys are of great use. 合金大有用处。

The small particles are in random motion. 微粒处于杂乱无章的运动之中。

The flow of the liquid is from A to B. 该液体是从 A 往 B 流动的。(未按原文结构翻译)

Ⅳ. 作宾语补语或主语补语:

We must keep the machines in good order. 我们必须保持机器正常运转。(宾语补语)

Petroleum is considered of great value. 石油被认为很有价值。(主语补语)

Ⅴ. 介词跟有关动词(包括分词、不定式、动名词)、名词或形容词搭配连用:

A. 动词与介词搭配:

Hydrogen and oxygen can unite in (或 into) water. 氢和氧能化合成水。

He does not know how to make use of this waste gas. 他不知如何利用这种废气。

We should place stress on this problem. 我们应当强调这个问题。

A catalyst changes the speed of a chemical reaction without entering into it. 催化剂能改变化学反应速度而不参与反应。

If acting on a body, a force can change its speed. 如果一个力作用于物体上,它就能改变物体的速度。

Considered as a building material, wood is not very strong. 虽然木头被认为是一种建筑材料,但强度不大。

The difference between the two phones consists in functions. 这两架电话的差别在于功能不同。

The liquid tastes of lemon. 该液体有柠檬味。

B. 名词与介词短语搭配:

介词与动词的搭配,一般也可引申到与动词具有相同词根的抽象名词上去,使这些名词也能具有这样的搭配关系:

The combination of theory with practice is essential to us. (比较:to combine theory with practice)理论联系实际对我们是不可缺少的。

The direction of motion can be changed by the action of another force on a body. (比较:Another force acts on a body)运动的方向可由另外一个力作用于物体上而改变。

The quantity of work is determined by force and motion in the direction of the force. (比较:to move in the direction of the force) 功的数值取决于力和沿着力的方向的运动。

The introduction of laser into industry has only just begun. (比较:to introduce laser into industry)激光用于工业还只是刚刚开始。

Essential English is a course for the teaching of English to foreign students. (比较:to teach English to foreign students) 基础英语是教外国学生英语的一门课。

The Pearl River's flow into the sea is only second to that of the Yangtze River.(比较:The Pearl River flows into the sea. ) 珠江入海流量仅次子长江。

They discussed the definition of energy as the capacity to do work. (比较:to define energy as the capacity to do work) 他们讨论了能是作功本领的定义。

C. 形容词与介词搭配:

A chemical change is different from a physical change. 化学变化不同于物理变化。

This quality is characteristic of all metals. 这种性质是一切金属所特有的。

The pressure is perpendicular to the direction of motion. 该压力垂直于运动方向。

All effects are dependent on their causes. 一切结果是依原因而转移的。

注:形容词后面要求用固定的介词为数不少。现再举例如下:

be fortunate in so many books(他)很幸运有那么多书;

be honest in the intentions(他)动机真诚;

be keen on doing sth. 渴望做某事;

be rude to sb. 对某人粗鲁;

remain dependent on the parents(儿童)仍然依赖于家长;

be grateful for sb’s advice(我)感谢某人的忠告;

be bad at French(她)法语很糟糕;

be not fond of dancing(我)不喜欢跳舞;

be sure (或 certain) of success(她)确信成功

be far away form China(他们)远离中国;

be quick at understanding(他)理解快;

be valid for China(这张护照即 this passport)对中国有效;

be quite sensitive to criticism(他)对批评很敏感;

be content with…(我)对…很满足;

be kind to sb.(她)对某人很和蔼;

be busy with(或 at, about, in)the work(他)忙于工作;

contrary to sb’s expectations 出乎某人意料等。

注:注意有时形容词跟它的固有的介词短语有分割现象。例如:The language is certainly not a different language from that of everyday life. 语言当然不是和日常生活的语言迥然不同的。

三、介词短语用法判別时注意事项

Ⅰ. 注意动词与不同的介词搭配,会有各种意思。

现以 make 为例:to make use of… 利用…;to make wine from rice 用米制造酒;to make a thing into … 拿某东西制成(帽子即 the hat);to make…of great value 使(计算机)成为很有价值;to be made a box out of… 以… 制成箱子;to make away with… 拿走(笔),灭掉(证据即 the proof),浪费(钱、财);to make up for… 弥补(损失即 the loss);to be made up of…(物质)由…构成等。为此,得多翻阅辞典,以查清动词与介词是否构成固定词组,但难点还在于当这些词组中的介词宾语变为中心词而构成被动态时,中心词与介词分隔开,词序也颠倒,就不好辨别。例如:

Atomic energy can be made use of in the production processes. 原子能是可以在这些生产过程中加以利用的。(主动态为:People can make use of atomic energy…. )

He was listened to with great interest. 当时人们怀着很大的兴趣听他讲话。(主动态为:People listened to him with great interest. )

We consider that the wishes of the speaker and those of the person spoken to or spoken of are the same. (斜体字部分为过去分词短语作后置定语,说明前面的 person。可联系 to speak to… 和 to speak of… 用法。)我们认为,讲话者的愿望和听讲者或讲话申所提到的人的愿望是相同的。

Water is spoken of as containing the two elements hydrogen and oxygen. 水被说成含有氢和氧两种元素。

Your sentence needs adding a question mark to. 你的句子需要加一个问号。(句中 to 后面未出现的宾语正是句中的主语。)

有时同一动词(例如 arrive)后面可有三个不同介词的搭配:

a. He arrived at the five-star hotel on time. 他准时到达五星级饭店。(到达小地方时,arrive 后面用 at。)

b. I arrived in Tianjin yesterday. 我昨天到达天津。(到达大城市时,arrive 后面用 in。)

c. The policeman arrived on the scene. 警察到达了现场。(纯系习惯用法。)

II. 同一形容词,后面介词不同,会引起差异:

They are familiar with cloning technology. 他们精通克隆技术。(划线部分原意为“熟悉”。)

The subject is familiar to us. 我们熟悉这个课题。(划线部分原义是“对…说来是熟悉的”。)

He is skilful at swimming. 他很会游泳。

She is skilful in negotiation. 她善于谈判。

He is skilful with a tool. 他善于使用工具。

III. 同一介词,由于所搭配的词不同,也会具有各种含义。现以 in 为例:

in China 在中国;in a sense 在某种意义上;in all directions 沿着各个方向;in the right proportion 按照恰当的比例;in the main 大体上,基本上;in excess 过度,过量;in coordination 协调地;in common 共同等甚至有时同一介词短语,在不同上下文中都会有不同含义。例如:

We shall start this work in a week. 一星期后我们开始这项工作。

I shall see him several times in a week. 我将在一周内见到他几次。

He completed the work in a week. 他用一周时间完成了这项工作。

Ⅳ. 某些及物动词接上介词,就变为不及物动词,有时词义还有所变化。

I looked but saw (vt.) nothing. 我看了,但未见到什么。

This machine is out of order. Please see (vi.) to it. 这台机器发生故障。请检修一下。("see to…" 原义为“留心”、“注意”。)

If you don't believe him, go and see (vi.) into the matter. 如果你不相信他,你就去调查这件事吧。

This news started (vi.) him thinking. 这条消息引起他的思考。

I shall start(vi.) for Shanghai on Sunday at the latest. 我最迟星期日动身去上海。

We must do our best to serve (vi.) the people. 我们必须尽力为人民服务。

This box will serve(vi.) for a seat. 这只箱子可当个座位。(“to serve for…” 原义为 “供作…用”。)

Ⅴ. 介词宾语相同,而介词不同,会有很大差异。现以名词 business 和 itself 为例:

He will go to Beijing on business. 他将出差去北京。

This firm is now more the 30 years in business. 这家商行已经营 30 多年了。

We go to business at eight in the morning. 我们早晨八点去上班(或办公)。

He has been pressed by business. 他已经是非常繁忙。

Such an animal often lives by itself. 这样的动物常常独居。

The door closes of itself. 这门能自关。

It is a small thing in itself. 这本来是件小事。

I saw him on the way home. 我在回家路上见到了他。

Don't stand in the way. 不要挡路站着。

Ⅵ. 注意介词短语在句中的位置:

介词短语作状语一般在句首或句末(见本节 一 第 5,8,9,10 句和二、II 第 1,2,3 句),只是有些介词短语可紧挨谓语(见本节二、Ⅱ 第 4,5 句);作定语时放在所修饰的名词后面(见本节、一第 1,2,4 句和二、 I),尤其当位于主语和动词中间时,则基本上作主语的定语(见本节一、第 2 句和二、Ⅰ 第 1 句)。要注意两个前后相呼应的介词短语有时被分割的现象。例如:

Millions of calculations may be done from the time when the scientific facts, or information, are put in to the time when the final answer reaches the output section. 从输入科学事实即信息时算起,一直到在输出段得到最后答案时为止,也许进行了千百万次计算。(句中 form… to… 前后呼应,但中间插上定语从句,修饰 the time。)

Ⅶ. 几个介词短语连用时,必须根据上下文逐个解决其与哪个词有关:

The unit of measurement of the pressure of water is the pound. 水压的计量单位是磅。(三个 of 短语各修饰其前面的名词)

A thermometer is placed in a mixture of ice and water in a beaker. 有一个温度计放在烧杯内冰和水的混合物中。(第一个介词短语作 is placed 的状语,第二个作 mixture 的定语,而第三个根据逻辑判别应作“冰、水混合物”的定语。)

Power is measured by dividing the work done by the time used in doing the work. 功率可由所作的功除以作功所用的时间来测量。(第一个介词 by 短语是谓语的状语,第二个 by 短语是动名词 dividing 要求搭配用的;第三个 in 短语是作 time 的定语用的过去分词 used 所要求的搭配关系。)

Ⅷ. 注意有些介词来自动词,只是表面上似乎具有动词的非谓语形式。例如:

Failing an answer, write another letter to us. 如果无答复,请再次写信给我们。

Seeing her youth and inexperience she is not fit for the work. 由于她年轻没有经验,不适于作这项工作。

He did it very well considering his age. 就他年龄而论,这件事他干得很好。

注:参阅“-ing 的用法和判别”第 54 节、一、XVⅢ。

Ⅸ. 注意有些词,既是介词,又可作副词用:

介词 副词

1. He is in the laboratory. 他在实验室。 1. Hand in your exercise books. 把练习本交来。

2. Lubricating oils came well up the range of boiling points. 润滑油大大地超过了这个沸点范围。 2. We must speed up the development of information industries. 我们必须加速信息产 业的发展。

3. She got off the bus. 她走下公共汽车。 3. This reaction gives off a small quantity of heat. 该反应放出少量热。

4. They passed the square by bus. (那时)他们乘车经过广场。 4. They passed by in a line. (那时)他们排着队通过。

上述副词位置能挪后,但直接宾语为代词时,副词只能放在后面。介词位置不能挪后。

注意:“介词+介词短语、副词或形容词”结构

介词宾语一般用名词或代词表示,但有时还可用副词或介词短语来表示。

一、“介词+副词”结构

We should work still harder from now on. 今后我们应更加努力地工作。

He did not know the basic principles until quite recently. 直到最近他才知道这些基本原理。

Not a few senior engineers work in the computer companies about(或 around)here. 不少高工在这里附近的计算机公司工作。

From here we see that the liquid flows down the tower under the force of gravity, but vapor flows upward. 由此可见,液体在重力作用下沿着塔往下流,而蒸汽往上流。

Their cloning-related research is far from over. 他们有关克隆的研究工作远没有结束。

I live with my uncle, who has a business in a mountain town north of here. 我和叔叔一起住,他在这里的北部山城开了一个公司。

From far out in space come other kinds of radiation known as cosmic rays. 还有其它一些称之为宇宙线的辐射线系来自遥远的外层空间。

All rooms were cleaned except here. 除这里以外,所有房间都打扫了。

二、“介词+介词短语”结构

The hovercraft is something in between a boat and an aircraft. 气垫船是介于船和飞机之间的一种交通工具。(意择)

Choose a beeper from among these. 从这些寻呼机中挑选一个。

We take coal and petroleum up from under the ground. 我们从地下开采煤和石油。

The device was removed from out of the room yesterday. 室外的这个装置昨天已被搬走。(原义为:这个装置昨天从室外被搬走了。)

The blue whale can grow to a length of up to 30 meters. 兰鲸身体可长达30米。

Pipistrelles are active in summer from dusk to just before sunrise. 小蝙蝠夏天活动时间是从黄昏到日出前。

They came from over the sea (或 from all over the world = from around the world). 他们来自海外(或来自世界各地)。

We can remove practically all the air from between the double glass walls of a thermos bottle. 我们实际上可以将热水瓶双层玻璃中间的空气全部抽走。

They are peasants from out of the city. 他们是城市郊区的农民。

Our test will be started in from fifty minutes to two hours’ time. 我们的实验将在 50 分钟到两个小时以后开始。

From across the fields came strange noises. 从田野那边传来奇怪的闹声。

The whole process is controlled by between three and six engineers with the help of computers. 整个过程由 3 到 6 之间的工程师(即四、五位工程师)借助于计算机来控制。(但 between three and six 作前置定语。)

三、注意“介词+形容词”构成介词短语,一般用于固定短语中

The result of his experiment is far from satisfactory. 他的实验结果远远不是令人满意的。

The patient looked anything but well.(当时)病人脸色绝非良好。

She has brought up her spoken English considerably of late. 最近她英语口语大大地提高了。

The magician may turn the liquid from blue to red. 魔术师可以将这液体由蓝变红。

The boy came back at last. 这个男孩终于回来了。

注:at most(至多),at least(至少),at latest(最晚),at longest(最长,最久)等表面上是“介词+形容词”结构,实际上是这些形容词最高级前面省略了定冠词 the,因此这些前面加 the 的最高级形容词已名词化了。

四、注意事项

有些句子,乍一看似乎有“介词+介词短语”结构,实际上第一个词不是介词,而是和前面动词有关的副词。这时必须注意动词有否此种搭配用法,最后根据全句意义是否合乎逻辑来进行判断. 例如:

We shall go on with the work. 我们将继续做这项工作。go on 是不可分的词组,意义是“继续”,on 在这里是副词,不是介词。

He has been somewhat behind with his studies and is now work in hard to catch up with the others. 学习有点落后,现在加紧干,以赶上其他人。 behind 是副词,在这里作表语。Catch up with 是一个不可分的词组,意义是“赶上”。

宾语补(足)语及注意点

一、宾语补语特点

英语中有些及物动词,除有一个直接宾语以外,还要有一个宾语补语,才能使句子的意义完整。这类常用的及物动词有:make (使),consider (认为),cause (引起、使得),see (看见),find (发现),call (称为、叫做),get (让、使得),have(让、使得)let(开始、使…开始)等。“宾语+宾语补语”就称为复合宾语。

Electricity can make a machine run. 电能使机器运转。

We consider (或 think) the answer (to be) correct. 我们认为这个答案是正确的。

Changes in temperature and pressure often cause matter to changes from one state to another. 温度和压力的变化,常引起物质从一种状态变为另一种状态。

It is the reform and opening-up policy that is making China a powerful country. 就是这个改革开放政策正使中国变为一个强国。

上例 1 中 a machine 是 make 的直接宾语,run(运转)的动作是直接宾语 a machine(机器)发出的,即 run 直接说明 a machine。同样,例2,3中 the answer 和 matter 分别是 consider(认为)和 cause(引起)的直接宾语,而它们后面的 correct 和 to change 都是说明直接宾语的。从意思上看,直接宾语和宾语补语之间有“谓语”关系。第 4 句中是 what 引出的从句作宾语 China 的宾语补语。

试比较下列两句:

I found the empty oil tank. 我发现这个空油箱。(定语)

I found the oil tank empty. 我发现这个油箱是空的。(宾语补语)

二、宾语补语的表示法

宾语补语在句中一般有九种表示法:Ⅰ. 名词(或名词性物主代词);Ⅱ.形容词;Ⅲ. 不定式;Ⅳ. 现在分词;Ⅴ. 过去分词;Ⅵ. As…;Ⅶ. 介词短语;Ⅷ. 副词;Ⅸ. 从句。带有宾语补语的一般句型为:某些及物动词(如 make等)+ 直接宾语(名词或代词)+ 宾语补语

Ⅰ. 用名词及其短语(或名词性物主代词)或某种名词从句表示:

We call such a process the software development. 我们把这样一个过程叫做软件开发。

Thinking and practicing make the English grammar(或 what we learn)ours. 思索和实践使英语语法(或我们所学的内容)消化变为我们的。(句中 what we learn 为名词从句,顶宾语用。)

Whatever has made the electronic commerce what it is today?究竟是什么使电子商务变成今天这个面貌?

注:要求用名词或名词性物主代词作宾语补语的常见动词还有:term(称为),name(取名为),elect(选为),find(发现),appoint(任命为),judge(判断为),prove(证明)等。

II. 用形容词及其短语表示:

We consider the food no longer fit for human consumption. 我们认为该食物对人不再适用。

Computers make work still easier. 计算机使工作更为省力。

They painted their boat green. 他们把船漆成绿色的。

We must get something right. 我们必须搞清某事。

We have found it necessary to develop information technology. 我们发现有必要发展信息技术。(it 为先行宾语,后面不定式短语为真正宾语。)

注:要求用形容词及其短语作宾语补语的动词还有:think,see,have,keep,judge,wipe(如 wipe… dry 将…擦干),wash(如wash… clean 将…洗干净),push(如 push the door open 把们推开),drink(如 drink a well dry 将井水喝干),hold(如 hold… silent 使…安静)等。

III. 用不定式及其短语表示:

We consider all matter to possess weight. 我们认为一切物质都有重量。

We know computers to be very important. 我们知道计算机十分重要。

Let us try to make the machine run. 让我们试一试将这台机器运转起来。

注 1:注意 see,have,let,make,watch,notice,hear,observe,fell,等动词后的宾语补语用不定式表示时,不可加 to。Help 后的不定式不加 to 或加 to 均可。

We use atomic energy to make ships go and to make electricity. 我们用原子能使轮船航行,也使用原子能来发电。(句中 go 前无 to,作宾语补语,从而得以判别前面第一个 make 做“使得”讲。第二个 make 后没有接不带 to 的不定式,得以判别第二个 make 作“生产”解)

注 2:注意“动词+名词+不定式动词”中的不定式动词并不都是宾语补语。

1)Now doctors can use e-mails to answer their patients’ inquiries. 现在医生能用电子邮件来回答病人的询问。(不定式不是目的。)

2)He promised me to give my son the game software. 他答应了我,要给我的儿子游戏软件。(不定式的动作将和主语 He 有关,当然不是宾语补语。)

Ⅳ. 用现在分词及其短语表示。这时宾语和宾语补语是主动态关系,而且还常具有“进行时”含义。

We saw her entering the room. 我们看见她正走进那个房间里去了。(=She was entering the room when we saw her. 若用 We saw her enter the room,那只是叙述那件事实而已,即等于She entered the room and we saw her. )

Do you feel the house shaking?你感到房子在摇动吗?

A phone call sent him hurrying to the hospital. 当时一个电话就是他急急忙忙地往医院去。

Ⅴ. 用过去分词及其短语表示。这时宾语和宾语补语是被动态关系。

They found Beijing greatly changed. 他们发现北京变化大。

At that time we were there and saw it done. 那时我们在那儿,并见到这件事做完。

Emily is tired of having her studies interrupted. 埃米莉讨厌别人打扰她的学习。(注意非谓语动词短语仍可保留宾语补语的搭配用法。)

Ⅵ. 用 as 引出宾语补语:

James and Lisa take English as a use full tool for research work. 詹姆士和莉萨把英语当作研究工作的一种有用的工具。

I have accepted the conclusion as correct. 我已接受这个结论是正确的。

We showed these computers as having different functions. 我们表明了这些计算机具有不同的功能。

We consider the machine parts as linked. 我们认为机器零件连接好了。

We usually speak of water as being a compound of two elements. 我们通常把水说成是两种元素的化合物。

I look upon him as my teacher. 我把他看成我的老师。

We regard World Report as true. 我们认为世界报导是真实的。

注 1:从上述例句中不难看出,as 后接的词并不限于名词,还有现在分词、过去分词、形容词或它们相应的短语。

注 2:有时由于宾语太长而让宾语补语出现在它的前面,从而引起难点。例如:

Astronomers no longer regarded as fanciful the idea that they may one day pick up signals which have been sent by intelligent beings on other planets. 宇航员认为有朝一日他们可截取外星智能人发出的信号,这种想法不再是富于幻想的了。(句中 the idea 是后置的宾语,that 引出其同位语从句。)

注 3:注意当“impress 或 strike + 宾语 + as + 形容词”时,as 后的形容词却是说明动词前的主语。例如:

1)Henry impressed us as (being) very clever. 那时亨利给我的印象是头脑十分灵敏。

2)It didn't strike me as surprised that nobody talked about the matter. 当时没人谈及此事,并不使我感到惊讶。(it 为形式主语,that 从句为真正主语。)

Ⅶ. 用副词表示:

Let the fresh air in. 让新鲜的空气进来。

He saw me out with Joe and Derek. 他看见我同乔和德立克外出了。

His bedroom was dirty, and so he didn't ask me in. 当时他的卧室很脏,因此没请我入内。

She went out with the gloves on. 她戴着那副手套出去了。(on 作介词宾语 gloves 的宾语补语。)

Ⅷ. 用介词短语表示宾语补语

We found everything in the chemistry laboratory in good order. 我们发觉化学实验室内每件东西放得井井有条。

They consider isotopes of great value for research work. 他们认为同位素对研究工作有很大价值。

So many functions which a computer possesses make it of much use. 计算机具有的那么多的功能使它成为十分有用。

Whenever you may go, you will find him at work. 不论什么时候去,你都可以看见他在工作。

Ⅸ. 用 what 从句(一种凝聚力很大的名词从句)作宾语补语

Now each type of computer has its own name. You mustn't call it what you will (call it). 现在每种型式的计算机各有它自己的名称。你不可以随便称呼它什么。

They wish to make their company what Microsoft is now in the near future. 他们希望在不久的将来把他们的公司发展为当前微软公司那样的规模。

三、注意在有宾语补语的句子中使用先行词(即形式宾语)it 的情况

They thought it right(或 of much use)todo this test. 他们原先想,做这项试验是对的(或十分有用的)。(后面不定式为真正宾语。)

We consider it useless (或 no use) learning a theory without practice. 我们认为学习理论而没有实践是无用的。(后面的动名词短语是真正宾语。)

We think it our duty to support him. 我们认为支持他是我们的职责。(后面不定式短语为真正宾语。)

We all regard it as very important(或 of great importance)that theory should be combined with practice. 我们都认为理论结合实践是很重要的。(后面从句是真正宾语。)

注:能在复合宾语中先用形式宾语 it,然后再用真正宾语的动词并不多,常见的有 think, find, consider, deem(以为),judge(判断),feel,make,take 等。

四、注意宾语和宾语补语被从句割裂的现象

We call atoms of the same element that have different atomic weights isotopes. 我们把具有不同原子量的同一种元素的原子叫做同位素。

We may speak of anything whose pressure is higher than that of the earth as being positive, and of anything whose pressure is less than that of the earth as being negative. 我们可以把凡是比地球电位高的东西说成是带正电的,而把凡是比地球电位低的东西说成是带负电的。

The electronic computer has had all the facts the problem needs stored in its memory. 电子计算机已把算题所需的一切事实都贮存在储存器内。

The need for engineers who can view the whole area of engineering, wide and complicated as it is, as a single field of operation of a few basic laws and methods has become increasingly felt. 对工程师的需要已感到增长起来了。虽然整个工程领域既广阔又复杂,但这些工程师仍然把它看作是运用若干基本定律和方法的简单场所。(在 view 后的宾语和第二个 as 后的宾语补语之间插入一个让步状语从句,并且还是采用颠倒语序和加 as 方法构成的。)

五、注意句中作其它成分用的短语又引出宾语补语的情况

What made him consider Lu Hsun a writer worthy of the trust of the people? 是什么使得他认为鲁迅是一个值得人民信任的作家呢?(句中 consider 是 him 的宾语补语,而 a writer 又是 Lu Hsun的宾语补语。注意宾语补语连环套用的情况。)

We requested the captain to keep us informed of the position of the vessel, the communications to be addressed to our agent. 我们要船长向我们报告商船的位置,还要求把消息发给我们的代理人。(句中 the captain 和 the communications 是动词 requested 的两个并列宾语,而各自后面的不定式短语为各自的宾语补语。只是宾语补语 to keep… 中又出现过去分词 informed 并作 us 的宾语补语。)

注:关于介词后的“介词宾语+宾语补语”(即复合宾语)的用法,还可参阅第 54节一、ⅩⅣ、B 例 5~11,13,14、和 C 例。

六、注意“have + 宾语 + 宾语补语(以不带 to 的不定式或过去分词表示)”有时仅表示“遭受某种情况”,并不含有句中主语的意志即主观上的想法。

a. We will have the twins go with us. 我们要这两个双胞胎同我们一块走。(表示主语 we 的主观想法。)

b. I shall have some students come here。将有一些学生来这里。(无主语 I 的主观想法,仅是反映客观情况而已。)

The girl had her purse stolen. 这女孩的钱包被偷了。(仅表示“遭到某种情况”,决无主语主观想法即“请人偷她的钱包”。)

I had my right hand injured. 我的右手受伤了。(无主语的主观想法。)

She had her younger sister die. 她的妹妹死了。(同上。)

主语补(足)语及注意点

一、特点及表示法

在带有主语补语的句中,谓语一般是被动语态。带有宾语补语的句子,改用被动语态表示时,则句中原来的宾语变为主语,原来说明直接宾语的宾语补语,就变成说明主语的主语补语。其表示法一般可概括如下:

有关动词被动态+主语补语(一般可用下列七种形式表示)

I. 用名词及其短语表示

This process is called evaporation. 这种过程叫做蒸发。比较:

We call this process evaporation. 我们把这种过程称之为蒸发。(evaporation 为宾语补语)

Evaporation is considered a physical process. 蒸发被认为是一种物理过程。

He was elected monitor in our class. 他在我班被选为班长。

This law is named(或 termed)Ohm’s law. 这个定律称为欧姆定律。

II. 用形容词及其短语表示

Computers are considered very important to us. 计算机被认为对我们至关重要。 比较:People consider computers very important to us. 人们认为计算机对我们至关重要。(宾语补语)

The medicine must be kept dry. 这药品必须保持干燥。

It has been made clear when the video conference will be held. 已明确宣布何时举行电视会议。(句中 when 引出主语从句,而前面 it 为形式主语。)

III. 用动词不定式及其短语表示主语补语时,不定式动词前面都带 to。

Oil is known to be in the liquid state. 大家知道油处于液态。(未按原文结构翻译)比较:

We know oil to be in the liquid state. 我们知道油处于液态。(宾语补语)

a. James was seen to buy the game software for his son. 有人看见詹姆士为他儿子买了游戏软件。(未按原文结构翻译)

b. Efforts were made by Linda to develop software. 琳达为开发软件作出了努力。(本句内不定式短语却表示目的状语。为此必须注意上下文。)

Ⅳ. 用现在分词及其短语表示

They were seen playing video games. 曾有人见到他们在玩电子游戏。(未按原文结构翻译)比较:

We saw them playing video games. 我们曾见到他们在玩电子游戏。(宾语补语)

The boy was found sleeping on the ground this morning. 今天早晨有人发现这男孩睡在地上。(意译)

V. 用过去分词及其短语表示

Sulfur is found combined with many metals. 硫被发现同许多金属化合在一起。(主语补语)比较:

We find sulfur combined with many metals. 我们发现硫同许多金属化合在一起. (宾语补语)

The information industries are found well developed in our country. 人们发现信息产业在我国得到很好发展。

Ⅵ. 用 as 引出主语补语

This maybe taken as (being) a result of the revolution in computer hardware. 这可以当作是计算机硬件革新的一种结果。比较:

We may take this as a result of the revolution in computer hardware. 我们可以把这当作计算机硬件革新的一种结果。(宾语补语)

This law is known as (或 is referred to as) the law of the sea. 这个法律通称为海洋法。

Electric current may be looked on as (或 seen as 或 regarded as) being a flow of electrons through a medium. 电流可以被视为电子在介质中的流动。(句中 being 可省略. )

Water can be shown as containing impurities. 可以证明水含有杂质。(原义:水是可以被证明含有杂质的。)

An atom may be thought of as made up of nucleus and electrons. 原子可以被认为是由原子核和电子所组成的。

Ⅶ. 用介词短语表示

Petroleum is considered of much use for our chemical industry. 石油被认为对我们的化学工业大有用处。

Your medicine must be kept in the original. 你的药必须保持原状。

One layer of liquid was found past another. 发现有一层液体超越另一层液体。

二、注意过去分词短语和有时甚至名词后用 as 引出补语的情况

Those computers are advanced products known as the five main famous brands of computers. 那些计算机是高级产品,被称为五种主要名牌的计算机。

The overhead vapor is entirely condensed and split into two portions—one for use as overhead product and the other for return to the top plate as reflux. 塔顶蒸汽全部冷凝并分成两个部分:一部分作塔顶产品用,另一部分作为回流液返回塔顶的塔板上。(句中 use 和 return 为名词,作介词宾语。它们能像其动词一样,能通过 as 引出补语。)

I have taken over a job as a manager. 我已经接了当经理的工作。

三、注意某些不及物动词也能引出主语补语

James acted as project manager. 詹姆士当时担任项目经理。

Natural gas also serves as the important raw material for chemical industry. 天然气也用作化学工业的重要原料。

条件和假设

一、真实条件从句

从句提出的条件是能实现的。如果该条件实现,则主句所表示的结果也将实现。例如:

If a = b and b = c, then a=c. 如果 a=b, b=c, 那么 a=c.

If the temperature of water is below 0℃, it exists in the solid state. 如果水温低于0℃,水就处于固态。

If Henry comes here, I shall ask him some questions. 若亨利来这里,我将问他一些问题。

二、假设或非真实主从句

从句所表示的假设与事实相反,或者不大可能实现. 一般可分为下列三种假设情况。这时谓语动词要用虚拟语气,以表示所说的话只是一种假设、愿望、猜测而已。(参阅第144节一、三、四、五和六。)

I. 与现在事实相反的假设:这时从句中谓语用过去一般时(be 用 were),主句谓语是“should 或 would(或其它情态动词 could, might 等)+ 动词原形”

If Joe had time, he would help you. 假如乔有时间,他就帮助你了。(事实上他现在没有时间。)

If I knew English, I should be able to read these English books. 假如我懂英语,我就能读这些英语书了。(实际上我现在不懂英语。)

If there were no gravity, there would be on air around the earth. 若没有重力,地球周围就没有空气。(事实上有重力。)

If there were no electronic brains, we could not live a modern happy life. 假如没有电脑,我们就不能过现代化的幸福生活. (假设的从句也可换用 If it were not for electronic brains. 详见本节、三、Ⅲ。)

Suppose (= If) you had a sum of money, what would you do with it? 假如你(现在)有一笔款子,你会用来做什么呢?(事实上现在你没有一笔款子。)

What would happen if human cloning became a reality? 万一人类无性生殖(指克隆人)成为现实,那将会发生什么呢?

II. 与过去事实相反的假设:这时从句谓语用过去完成时,主句谓语是 “should 或 would(或其它情态动词could,might 等)+ 完成时(后者一律用“have + 过去分词”形式)”。

If we had known the basic principles. we should have controlled the process even better. 假如我们知道这些基本原理,我们早就能更好地控制这个过程了。(事实上这些基本原理我们当时还是不清楚的。)

If you had come here yesterday, you would have seen him. 假如你昨天来这里,你就见到他了。(事实上你昨天没来这里。)

If she had further considered the problem, she might have come to the correct conclusion. 假如她当时能进一步考虑这个问题,她也许(会得出正确的结论。(事实上她当时没作进一步考虑。)

III. 与将来事实可能相反(指不可能实现或可能性较小)的假设:这时从句谓语用“should(或其它情态动词could, might 等)+动词原形”或“were + 带 to 的不定式动词”,主句谓语为“should, would 或其它情态动词过去式 could,might 等 + 动词原形”。

If Linda should come to us, she would answer these questions. 假如琳达真能来我们这里的话,她会回答这些问题的。(事实上她来的可能性较小或者不存在。)

If Sidney were to do this test, he might do it (in) some other way. 要是锡德尼做这项试验,他可能用另外某种方法做。(实际上不是他将去做这项试验。)

三、假设情况的其它表示法

Ⅰ. 用颠倒主、谓语词序手段表示假设条件从句:假设条件从句中谓语有 were, had, should, could 等时,则可去掉 if,把这些词提到从句最前面,即可构成假设条件从句的另一种句型。例如:

Were there no gravity, there would be no air around the earth. 假如没有地球引力,地球周围就没有空气.

Were Jenny in Tianjin, she would help us. 假如詹妮在天津的话,她是会帮助我们的。

Had Dr. Ouyang time, he would help us (to) solve these problems. 假如欧阳博士有时间,他就会帮我们解决这些问题了。

Should they come to us, I should ask them some questions. 假如他们真能来我们这里的话,我将问他们一些问题。

Had the checking up of the experimental data not taken so much time, we should have completed our work long ago. 假如检验实验数据不花那么多时间,那么我们早就完成这项工作了。

Could he have fore seen it, his iron soul must not have been shaken. 假如他当时预知这件事,他铁一般的意志就决不会动摇了。

He might live quite comfortably were it not for such troubles. 若没有这样一些麻烦,他会过得很舒服的。

People might have avoided many accidents had ultrasonic methods been known before. 要是人们早就知道超声波方法,就可避免许多事故。

Did I see him, I would blame him for it. 如果我现在见到他,我就会为那件事责备他了。

Many of the successful men, had they been able to choose for themselves, would have selected other different professions. 许多成功的人,如果当初他们能自由选择职业的话,他们会选择其它不同的职业。

Should he call, tell him I am not at home. 万一他来叫我,就告诉他,我不在家。(本句假设是对将来事实可能相反的假设,只是实现可能性极小,但毕竟还有一点,故后面主句也可不用虚拟语气。)

Should they come (= If they should come), I shall speak to them about it. 如果他们真的来,我就给他们讲讲这件事。(假设的情况与上句相同,还有一点可能性实现,故后面主句也可用将来时。)

现将上述三种假设情况汇总成下列一表:

假设类型 假设条件从句 主句

与现在事实相反的假设 If + 主语 + 动词过去时(be 用 were)或用主、谓语语序颠倒方法 主语(第一人称)+ should + 动词原形

主语(第二、三人称)+ would + 动词原形

与过去事实相反的假设 If + 主语 + 过去完成时或用主、谓语语序颠倒方法 主语(第一人称)+ should + have + 过去分词

主语(第二、三人称)+ would + have + 过去分词

与将来事实可能相反的假设 If + 主语 + should(或 were be)+ 动词原形或用主、谓语语序颠倒方法 主语(第一人称)+ should + 动词原形

主语(第二、三人称)+ would + 动词原形

注: >1. 主句还可用could(能够), might(或许,可以)代替 should, would 只是含义不同而已。 >2. 现代英语中,主句第一人称也常用 would。 >3. 去掉 if,把从句中 were, had, should, could 等提到从句前面,即可构成假设条件从句的另一种句型。 >4. 当假设用的从句主语为第一、三人称单数时,现在也有人用 was 代之,但采用主语、谓语词序颠倒以省略 if 时,一律用 were,不能用was。 ###II. 用介词短语 "without…" 或 "but for…" 等表示假设条件。 >1. *Without steel* and computers (= *If there were no steel* and computers), there would be no modern industry. 没有钢铁和计算机,就没有现代化的工业。 >2. *But for information technology*, we could not develop our network economy so rapidly. 要不是信息技术,我们不能如此快速地发展我们的网络经济。 >3. *But for the doctor’s high skill*, they would have died. 若没有这位医生的高超医术,他们早就死了。 ###III. 用 "Were it not for + 宾语" 或 "But that + 从句" 表示假设从句的否定式。 >1. *Were it not for* (= *If it were not for* ) *a computer*, you couldn't get on line and send a video e-mail to a friend from over the sea. 假如没有计算机,你就不能入网并且给海外朋友发视频电子邮件。 >2. *Had it not been for a portable phone*, I wouldn't have inform you of that traffic accident in time. 假如当时没有一部移动电话,我那时就不会及时通知你那件交通事故了。 >3. *But that he helps*, I would, fail. 要不是他现在帮忙,我就会失败的。(实际上目前有他帮助。) >4. *But that he saw it* (= *If he had not see in*),he could not have believed it. 要不是他亲眼看见,他早就不相信了。 ###Ⅳ. 通过上下文表示假设条件;至于属于哪种假设情况,主要看主句的谓语结构和上下文语言环境。 >1. Yesterday I was busy (in) getting things ready for trial production. *Otherwise I would have taken* part in the discussion. 昨天我忙于为试制生产作准备,否则我早就参加那次讨论了。(句中 *Otherwise* 实际上等于一个假设条件,即 "*If yesterday I had not been busy getting things ready for trial production*"。) >2. It *would be* a mistake not to help him. (要是)不帮助他,就会是一个错误。(不定式短语作真正主语)上句相当于:It *would be* a mistake *if we did not help him*. >3. Agnes *would have given* you more help, but she was very busy. 阿格尼丝本来会给你更多的帮助的,但她(那时)太忙了。 >4. This happening in the old society *would have caused* great disasters. 这要是发生在旧社会,早就造成极大的灾难。(句中 This happening in the old society 为具有“主谓”关系的复合结构,作主语。) >5. A true friend *would have acted* differently. (=A friend, if he had been true, *would have acted* differently. )一个真正的朋友就不会这样做了。 >6. With his aid you *would have succeeded* in it. 若当初就有他帮助,你早就成功了。 >7. That *would be* fine. 那太好了。(省去了 if you should do it. ) >8. (a) *If only* he *were* alive!要是他活着多好啊!

(b) *If only* I *hadn't lost it*!要是没丢失(它)多好! >9. I *wish* (*that*) I *hadn't* said that. 悔不该当时那样讲了. (原义是:但愿我当时没那样讲多好啊!显然是对过去没实现的事表示遗憾。) >10. He *wishes* (that) you *would stay* a little longer. 他巴不得你多呆一会儿。(实际上可能性不大,你马上要离开。) >11. I *wish* it *were* true. 可惜不是真的. (原义是:但愿这是真的多好啊!宾语从句内容实际上是和现在事实相反的,故用虚拟语气。) >12. How I *wish* it *weren't*(或 *wasn't*)raining! 现在要是不下雨多好!(本句为感叹句结构。) 注:若用 hope 代替 wish,宾语从句改用将来时,那就变为可能实现的希望。例如:I *hope* (that) you *will come* here once more。我希望你能再次来到这里。试比较:I *wish* (that) he *would come*. 可惜他不来。(原义为:但愿他能来多好啊!实际上这个希望落空,故译为:可惜他不来。) ###Ⅴ. 注意某些动词(如 intend, hope, mean, want, plan, think 等)以过去完成时构成虚拟语气,表示本来打算做而实际未做的动作。 >1. Derek *had hoped* to make another experiment, but it was too late. 德立克本来打算再做一个实验的,但是时间太晚了。 >2. We *had intended* to go to the library, but it began to rain. 我们本来想去图书馆的,但是天开始下雨了。 注:这里可联想有些动词(如 plan, mean 等)后用完成时的不定式以表示未实现的动作。例如: >1. I *planned to have left* yesterday. 我本来计划昨天离开的。 >2. He *meant to have told* us about it, but he forgot to do so. 他本想将这件事告诉我们的,但他忘了告诉。

虚拟语气的用法

一、虚拟语气用于假设(详见第143节专题“条件和假设”)

二、虚拟语气用于以 as if 和 as though(好像)引导的方式状语从句中,表示不太符合实际的比喻

This mini computer operates as if it were a new one. 这台小型计算机操作起来像一台新的一样。(事实上这台小型计算机不是新的。)

This micro computer operates as though it had been repaired. 这台微型计算机操作起来好像修理过似的。(事实上这台微型计算机操作前没有进行过修理。)

注:在 look 和其它个别动词后引起的 as if 或 as though 的从句内,可以用虚拟语气,目前有趋势,也可以用陈述语气,因为 as if 和 as though(作“好像”讲)已衬托出虚拟语气的含义。

She looks as if she is from Beijing. 她看起来像北京人。

It seems as if we shall have to walk home. 看来我们似乎得步行回家了。

It sounds as though someone is knocking at the door. 听起来似乎有人在敲门。

三、虚拟语气用于以 lest, for fear that 和 in case 引导的目的状语从句中

He is working hard for fear that he should fall behind. 他工作努力,怕落在别人后面。

I wrote everything down lest I should forget it. 为了怕忘记,我把每件事都记下来了。

Take your umbrella along, in case it should rain. 带着伞吧,以防下雨。

必须注意,上述三个目的状语从句内的 should 还可以省略,于是就以动词原形出现。

四、虚拟语气用于 though (或 although) , even if 和 even though 引出的让步状语从句中,表示已不把让步作为事实,却把它当作假设来用

Even though she had been very busy, she would have helped us. 即使当时她很忙,她还是会帮助我们的。(事实上她当时并不十分忙,故更会帮助我们。)

Even if he were here, he could not solve the problem at once, either. 即使他在这里,他也不能立即解决这个问题。(事实上他没有在这里。)

Though (或 Although) he blame me, yet will I trust in him. 即使他责备我,我还是依然信任他。

上句是用动词原形表示虚拟语气,借以体现不把让步当作事实。与此同理,如果在条件从句内也采用动词原形表示虚拟语气,当然也可把条件转为假设。例如:

If the news be true, his life is in the greatest danger. 如果这消息确实,那么他的生命处于极其危险之中。(注意主句并没用虚拟语气。)

五、虚拟语气用于表示愿望的固定句型结构中

You had better clear up this problem. 你最好将这个问题解释清楚.

We would like to see her. 我们愿意见她。

Lisa would sooner go downtown than stay here. 莉萨宁愿去市中心区而不愿呆在这里。

I had (或 would) rather take this than that. 我宁愿取这个而不要那个。

He would rather you didn't do that for the time being. 他宁可让你暂时不做那件事。

Prof. Lu would as soon get online as go to the cinema. 卢教授宁愿上网而不去看电影。

六、虚拟语气用于主句中含有建议、劝告、要求、请求、需要、愿望、命令等词语的有关从句中,体现一种“让某人做某事”的主观意向

They suggested that the World Cup be held every two years. 他们那时建议(让)世界杯每两年举行一次。

I recommended that he (should) study more English before going abroad. 我建议(让)他出国前多学点英语。(宾语从句用虚拟语气。)

They require that this work (should) be done at once. 他们要求立即做这项工作。(宾语从句用虚拟语气。有“让这项工作立即做”的含义。)

She thinks it necessary that we should obtain experience through practice. 她认为有必要让我们通过实践取得经验。(it 为形式宾语,后面从句为真正宾语,并用了虚拟语气。)

His idea is that we(should)send a teacher to teach them English. 他的意见是让我们派一名教师去教他们英语。(表语从句用虚拟语气。)

I agree to the proposal that we (should) put this question to the vote. 我同意这个提议一一让这问题付诸表决。(同位语从句用虚拟语气。)

It is desired that you (should) put yourself in his position. 希望(让)你设身处地为他想一想。(主语从句用虚拟语气。)

It will be better that we (should) hold a meeting next week. 最好(让)我们下周开一次会。(主语从句用虚拟语气。)

He ordered that the soldiers should put out the lights immediately. 他命令(让)战士们立即熄灯。(宾语从句用虚拟语气。)

注:属于本类用法的词语还有:demand, propose, command, request, insist, suggestion, recommendation, motion(作“动议”讲),plan等。见到这些词,后面从句用 should 或用动词原形,便是虚拟语气的用法了。

七、虚拟语气用于表示祝愿的祈使句中,一般用动词原形或 may 加动词原形

Long live the friendship between the peoples all over the world. 全世界人民友谊万岁!

May your life be long. 祝(愿)君长寿!

八、虚拟语气用于表示主观揣测和婉转的语气

At that time the temperature would rise rapidly. 那时温度会迅速上升。(句中 would 表示主观揣测的意味。若用 will,语气就很肯定。)

Would you write a letter to him? 你要不要给他写一封信?(婉转语气。用 will 就不如 would 显得客气。)

Might I come in? 我可以进来吗?(用 might 比 may 语气婉转。)

九、虚拟语气用于 it is time 后的定语从句中

It is (high) time (that) we (should) set off. 我们该动身了!

It is time (that) we got up. 我们该起床了!(本句用一般过去时表示虚拟语气。关系副词 that 常省略。) 在本句型中,第 2 句的虚拟语气表示法比第 1 句用得更广泛.

十、虚拟语气用于表示惊奇、疑惑、没料到的事

It is strange that she should have failed to do this test. 奇怪的是,她竟然没有做成这项试验。

It is wonderful that she should have completed the experiment in a short time. 她竟然用很短时间做完这个实验,真令人惊异。

In ever thought that the problem should be so easy. 我从来没想到这问题居然会如此容易。

We just couldn't believe that the new building should be so beautiful. 我们简直不相信新楼会这样漂亮。

注:对过去事实表示惊奇,should 后用完成式动词;对今后的事表示惊奇,则 should 后用一般式动词。

十一、虚拟语气用于 it is important (或 natural),it has been decided, I am sorry, they were disappointed 等句子后面的从句中

It is very important that China should join WTO. (让)中国加入世贸组织是非常重要的。

It is natural that I should drop in on my teacher. 自然我要顺便走访我的老师。

It has been decided that we should have English classes next week. 已经决定(让)我们下周上英语课。

I am sorry that he should be so weak. 很遗憾,他身体(竟然)这样弱。

十二、注意 should, would 和 might 等用于虚拟语气和作其它用法时的区别。详见 should,would 和 might 各自用法的专题介绍(参阅第 65,96,132 有关项)。

省 略 (Ellipsis)

为了避免重复,句子中某些部分可以省略。兹分下列二十一种情况。

一、并列复合句中某些相同成分的省略。注意下列各句中用逗号、分号、and、or、but also、while、though 等手段把各分句并列地连接起来的方法

This beeper works well, but that one doesn't (work well). 这个寻呼机正常工作,但那个就不行。

All uranium atoms do not have the same atomic weight. Some of them weigh 234 units, some (of them) (weigh) 235 units, and some (of them) (weigh) 238 units. 所有的铀原子并非都有相同的原子量。其中有的重 234,有的重 235,而有的重 238。

All bodies consist of molecules and these (molecules consist) of atoms. 一切物体都由分子组成,而分子由原子组成。

We frequently regard gases as compressible, (we frequently regard) liquids as incompressible. 我们常把气体看作是可压缩的,而液体是不可压缩的。

Remember that information technology is very important. (Remember) Also that we must continue to develop it. 记住信息技术十分重要,同时也要记住,我们必须继续发展这门技术。

An object is said to be hot if its temperature is much higher than that of our bodies, or(an object is said to be)cold if its temperature is much lower (than that of our bodies). 如果物体温度比我们体温高得多,我们就说它热;如果比我们体温低得多。我们就说它冷.

In l973, the output of coal in this region amounted to about 20 percent of the whole country; (the put) of steel (in this region amounted to) 25 percent;of grain 30 percent;of cotton 35 percent. 1973 年该地区的煤产量约占全国总产量的 20%,钢产量占 25%,粮食产量占 30%,棉花产量占 35%。(用分号使各分句并列,后两个分句省略情况同前。)

Many gases are easily changed into liquids and vice versa. 许多气体易于变为液体,而反过来也容易。(句中 vice versa 代替 many liquids arc easily changed into gases.)

This happened and (it was) a good thing too, for it helped us to find out our own short comings. 这件事发生了,但也是件好事,因为它帮助我们找到我们自己的缺点。

Conductors conduct electricity, while insulators do not (conduct electricity). 导体能导电,而绝缘体不能导电。

The laser and the light from an ordinary lamp are one and the something, though (they are) of very different nature. 激光和普通灯光都属于光同一范畴,可是它们的性质大不相同。(句中 though 前有逗号,引出并列分句,作“可是”讲。)

二、在用 when, while, if, as if, though (或 although), as, until, once, whether, unless, where 等连词连接的状语从句内省略跟主句相同的主语及其 be 的相应形式。有时从句中主语 it 或有关成分(见第 5,6 句)也可省略

When (water is) pure, water is a colourless liquid. 水纯时,水是无色的液体。

When (I am) in trouble I always turn to her for help. 我困难时总是找她帮助。

Experience, when (it is) dearly bought, is seldom thrown away. 经验如果是花了很大代价得来的,就很少给扔掉。

A generator may generate electricity when (it is) driven by a steam engine, gas engine or water wheel. 发电机由蒸汽机、燃气轮机或水轮机带动时,它就能发电。

Errors, if any, should be corrected. 如果有什么错误,就应当改正。(if 后可理解为省略了 there are)

Gears and chains must be properly lubricated. If not, there is a large amount of energy wasted due to friction. 齿轮和链必须适当润滑。如果不是这样,就会有大量的能由于摩擦而被消耗。(句中 not 否定前句整个意思,而被否定的句子全部省略。)

If (you are) given the chemical formula of a molecule, can you say how many atoms it is composed of? 如果给你一个化学分子式,你能说出该分子由多少个原子组成吗?

Wood gives much smoke while (wood is) burning. 木头燃烧时,它放出很多烟。

While (we were) there we were thinking of you all the time. 我们在那儿的时候一直想念你们。

Substances have no tendency to expand unless (they are) heated. 除非受热,物质不会有膨胀的倾向。

Once (nitrogen is) combined, nitrogen will not be chemically inert. 氮一旦化合,就不再是化学上的惰性气体。

This substance does not dissolve in water whether (it is) heated or not. 该物质不论加热与否,都不溶于水中。

Water is the same substance whether (it is) in solid, liquid, or gaseous state. 不论水处于固态、液态或气态,它都是同一种物质。

The letter is to be left here until (it is) called for. 这封信留在这里待领。

How can a submarine float and submerge as (it is) desired? 潜水艇怎能按我们愿望进行沉浮呢?

We are to go via (或 by way of) Beijing as (it was) originally planned. 我们拟照原定那样,取道北京走。

Henry looked about as if (he were) in search of something. 亨利向四周环视,似乎在寻找什么。

The temperature of iron increases more rapidly than that of water (increases). (that 为代词。)铁的温度比水的温度增加得快。

We should think much more of this problem than (we think) of that one. 我们应对这个问题比那个问题更为重视。

He is better today than (he was) when I wrote to you last year. 他今天比去年我给你写信时身体好些。

Nothing could be more unhappy than that I haven't any thing to do at home (could be). 什么也没有比我在家无事可做更使我感到不愉快了。(这里是 Nothing 跟连词 that 引出的名词从句在进行比较,而 that 本身无词义。)

We cut down the input of fuel when the increase of output of heat becomes greater than (it) is set. 当热量输出的增加值超过规定值时,我们就切断燃料的输入。

He has drunk considerably more wine than (it) is good for his health. 他喝酒的量已大大地超过对健康有益的界限。

Most machines, no matter how complex (they are), are combinations of the level and inclined plane. 大多数机器,不管(它们)多么复杂,都是杠杆和斜面的组合体。

We will do what is right, no matter what the consequences (are). 只要是对的,我们就做,不管有什么后果。

She studies very diligently though (she is) still rather weak. 她尽管体弱,但仍十分勤奋学习。

When you get to the moon you can jump about six times as high (as you can jump on the earth). 当你到达月球时,你能跳的高度就(比地球上)增加五倍左右。

注:在这类句子中,有时缺少的成分是永远也不表示出来的。例如:The faster the better. 越快越好等.

三、当见到“when (或 if, where, wherever, whenever, as soon as, as fast as, than 等)+ possible(或 necessary 等)”时,可理解中间省略了 it is(或 was),而这个 it 并不是代替主句中某个主语

Answer these questions, if (it is) possible without referring to the book. 如果有可能,请不看书回答这些问题。

Please send over the signals as soon as (it is) possible. 请尽快把信号发过去。

Fill in the blanks with the names of the machines wherever (it is) necessary. 在必要的地方将那些机器的名称填入空格中。

Try to explain this new theory and give actual examples where (it is) possible. 尽力解释这个新的理论,并在可能的地方列举一些实际例子。

When (it is) necessary you can help us to do something. 必要时你可以帮助我们做些事。

Electric current can be transmitted from a power station to where (it is) needed. 电流能从发电站输送到需要电的地方.

We do not use more coal than (it is) necessary. 我们使用的煤没有超出需要量。

The trains must run as fast as (it is) possible. 这些火车必须尽量快速地运行。

四、在 know, think, consider, suppose, find, believe, say, show, decide 等及物动词后面的宾语从句常省略连词 that

I think (that) it will clear up this afternoon. 我想今天下午天气转晴。

We know (that) Ann is going to buy a new generation of home computer. 我们知道安打算买一台新一代的家用计算机。

五、主语从句省略 that 较少见,并且多半只限于有形式主语 it 的句子

It is certain (that) Ms Liao has received my voice mail. 肯定廖女士已经收到我的语音邮件了。

It seems (或 appears) (that) Joe is out, not Derek. 外出不在的似乎是乔,不是德立克。

It is an honour (that) I was invited to your birthday party. 我很荣幸,被邀请参加你的生日聚会。

It’s a pity (that) you can't operate a computer. 很遗憾,你不会操作计算机。

It is the third time (that) I have come to the ground satellite station. 这是我第三次来到地面卫星接受站。

It’s time (that) she took the floor. 该她发言了.

六、在限制性定语从句内可省略作宾语和介词宾语的关系代词 whom, which, that, 而在以 the same…as 和 such…as 引出的某些定语从句内也可省略与主句相同的成分

The software (which 或 that)we developed last year can be used to control this process. 我们去年开发的软件可用来控制这个过程。

That is the naughty boy(whom 或 that)we talked about last week. 那就是我们上周议论的淘气男孩。

I have a pocket radio (which) to listen to when I travel. 我有一个袖珍无线电可供我旅行收听。

The rate of heat transfer through air is not the same as through water. 通过空气的传热速度是和通过水的传热速度不相同的。(as 引出的定语从句内省略了主句内已有的 the rate of heat transfer 和 is)

注:注意有时省略的不是和主句相同的成份。例如:

1)They won't buy such a computer as yours (is). 他们不会买像你那样的计算机。

2)Do you think the boy is doing something (that) he shouldn't (do)?你是否认为这男孩正在做他不应该做的事吗?

七、在 direction(方向),way(方式),distance(距离),time(时间),times(倍数)……等后面所接的定语从句中省略 that 或 which 以及省略 in which 或关系副词 that 的情况

The direction (in which) we move a body can be changed. 我们移动物体的方向是可以改变的。

The way (in which) he operates the palm computer is different from ours. 他操作掌上电脑的方式和我们不同。

The distance(which 或 that)light travels in one second is 300 000 kilometers. 光每秒钟走的距离是 300000 公里。

Mechanical advantage is the number of times (which 或 that) the resistance force is as great as the effort. 机械效益是阻力相当于作用力的倍数。(理解本句时可联系“The resistance is 3 times as great as the effort”中的 “3 times” 的用法。该句可译为:“阻力是作用力的三倍。”)

The longer the time (that) you permit the current to flow, the greater is the amount of heat produced. 让电流通过的时间越长,产生的热量就越大。

八、以 there be 开头的句子,其主语的定语从句常可省略关联词,而 there be 结构作定语从句时,省略作主语的关系代词

There is a chance Dr. Fang will be able to be back for May Day. 方博士也许有机会能回来过五一节。

There is possibility we’ll go, all depends on the weather. 我们可能去,但这要看天气而定。

We have to make a list of all the books there are on the subject. 我们必须把所有关于这个题目的书列出一个单子。

对上述八种省略情况的小结

上述八种省略情况在英语中是大量出现的。因此在阅读英语时发现句子残缺不全,就应注意有否省略成分。判别时首先看句中有无 And, or, but, when, while, than, if, as, as if, until, unless, once, although (though), no matter how, whether 等连接词或 there be 结构,因为这些连接词是判别有无省略成分的标志和依据。有时分号、逗号也可使分句简化,出现省略情况(如本节、一第4、8 句和二、第 3 句)。若非上述情况,则可考虑是否定语从句省略作宾语的关系代词 that 和 which 或省略 in which 情况(如本节 六 第 1,2 句)。若用 the same…as 或 such…as 引导的定语从句有残缺不全的情况,则可考虑是否省略了主句已出现的有关成分(如本节六 第 4 句)。当然也得注意宾语从句是否省略了连词 that。

九、命令句、惊叹句、部分第一人称陈述句、部分问句和答句情况

Ⅰ. 命令句:

Open the door! 开门!

Stir up the mixture for 5 minutes! 搅拌混合物 5 分钟!

注:如果要强调主语,也可把主语 you 说出来。例如:Yon read the text! 你读一下课文。

II. 惊叹句:

What a wonderful video phone! 多么奇妙的可视电话!

Simply impossible! 简直不可能!

Nothing doing! 不行!

III. 部分第一人称陈述句或陈述自己意见的句子:

Glad to see you。见着你,很高兴。

Sorry, the line is busy. 对不起,占线了。

Out with my friend in the morning, made an experiment in the afternoon. 早上同朋友出去,下午做了个实验。

Doesn't matter. 没有关系。

Time for rest. 该休息了。

Ⅳ. 部分问句:

Right? 对吗?

why not? 为什么不呢?

why so? 为什么这样呢?

What next? 下一步怎么样?

Anybody wishing to go (或 Anybody interested in going)?谁愿去啊?

Anything you want to take with you? 有什么东西要带吗?

Nothing more you want to say? 不再有什么话要说了?

Ⅴ. 部分答句或在下文中省略了上文中已出现的有关内容:

Get up! 起来! we are (getting up). 我们正在起来呢。

They are getting better at English. 他们英语有进步啊。 Yes,they are. 是的,他们有进步。

I hope you live a happy life. 我希望你生活幸福。

Yes, I do, thanks. 谢谢,我生活幸福。

I can't go to Shanghai subway station today,but I can next week. 我今天不能去上海地铁站,但我下周能去。

十、用 so(见下面 A),not(见下面 B)或其它手段(见下面 C)来省略上文或问句中的一部分或整个句义

A.

Can Emily do this work? 埃米莉能做这件工作吗?

I think so. 我想她行。

I think not(或I don't think so). 我想他不行。

Jessica may not be free today. If so you will not come to me. 杰西卡今天可能没空。如果这样,你就别来我这里了。

B.

Can you do this work? 你能做这件工作吗?

I am afraid not. 我怕不能。

Will they put you to any trouble in the matter? 他们不会因此事而使你为难吗?

I hope not. 我希望不会。(注意不说 I don't hope so. )

We may be free today. If not, you will not come to us. 我们今天可能有空。如果不是这样,你就别来我们这里了。

C.

Does she write letters to them? 她写信给他们吗?

Not any that I know of. 据我所知,她不写信。

Did you know anything about it? 这件事你以前知道吗?

Not until you told me. 你告诉了我,才知道。

Is Agnes determined to go? 阿格尼丝决心去吗?Unless the leadership does not approve of it. 除非领导不同意。

It is warm today. 今天天气暖和。

So it is. 对,是暖和。

Tomorrow will be Sunday. 明天是星期日。

So it will. 对,是星期日。

He has gone. No one knows where (he has gone). 他走了,谁也不知道他去什么地方了。

Jenny knows what (is to be done)! 詹妮有办法!

why so?为什么这样呢?(省略前面提到的上文。)

十一、当用强调句型强调疑问词或让步状语从句的关联词 whatever 等时,常省略强调句型中的 that

When was it (that) you received his e—mail? 你收到他的电子邮件是什么时候?

What was it (that) she bought here yesterday? 她昨天在这里买的是什么呀?

Why is it (that) you would like to stay in this five-star hotel? 我愿呆在这家五星级宾馆是因为什么呢?

We don't know who it was (that) called the doctor? 我们不知道是谁请了医生?

whatever (或 Wherever) it is (that) the girl is doing (或 is going), we must look after her. 不论这女孩在做什么(或准备去哪里),我们都必须照顾她。

十二、在“the + 比较级……,the + 比较级……”句子中省略 be 或 there be 情况

The higher the temperature (is), the greater the volume (is). 温度越高,体积就越大。

In studying a foreign language, the more practice (there is), the better (it is). 学习外语,练习越多越好。

The more, the better. 越多越好。(系成语,还省略其它成分。)

十三、A. 注意某些谓语在接一个 that 从句时,原来搭配的介词短语也可省略不用

a. He insists upon carrying out the test. 他坚持进行这个试验。

b. We insists (upon it) that the old workers have rich experience in practice. 我们坚持说老工人具有丰富的实践经验。

a. We agreed upon the reform plan. 我们同意这个改革计划。

b. We agreed that it was a mistake. 我们一致认为,这是一个错误。

a. You may depend upon their support. 你可依靠他们的支持。

b. You may depend (upon it) that they will support your proposal. 你可以相信。他们会支持你的建议。

注:同时注意省略 in 的一些固定短语。例如:spend much time (in) operating different types of computers 花费许多时间操作各种型式的计算机,be busy (in) writing programs 忙于编写程序, have difficulty (或 trouble) (in) sleeping 难以睡着等。

B. 注意某些形容词要求后面接一固定的介词短语,若接一从句,则只用 that 或疑问词接引出从句,从而省略原用的介词

We are not afraid of dying (或 of death) = We are not afraid that we shall die. 我们不怕死。

We are certain (或 sure) (省去 of) that air is a mixture. 我们可以肯定,空气是混合物。(甚至本句中连词 that 也可省略. )

She is doubtful (省去 about) whether she can complete it in time. 她怀疑她能否按时完成。

I am ignorant (省去 of) what you are talking about. 我不知你们在谈什么。

We felt curious (省去 as to) how they were carrying out the test. 我们很想知道,他们是怎样进行这项试验的。

He was not aware (省去 of) that you went there in 1977. (那时)他不知道你在 1977 年去那里了。

十四、用 to 表示前述动词(包括谓语或非谓语动词)及其短语

You may go to the radio and TV tower with them if you want to. 你愿意的话,可以和他们一起去广播电视塔。

He wants to stay at a four-star hotel but we prefer not to. 他想要投宿一家四星级宾馆,但我们想还是不去那里为宜。

You may go online if you like (to). 你如果想上网就可上网。(注意本句中表示省略不定式短语的标志 to 还可省去。)

Nothing can stop the boy from playing video games when he wants to. 当这男孩想玩电子游戏时,没有东西可阻碍他玩。(句中 to 表示后面省略 play…, 但前面出现的却是动名词短语 playing…。)

十五、在某些动词后含有宾语补语或主语补语的复合结构中省略 to be 或 being 的情况

They found the answer (to be) correct. 他们发现答案正确。

These instruments are thought (to be) very important. 人们认为这些仪器很重要。

This conclusion proved (to be) correct. 这个结论原来是正确的。

When it is warm, we often work with the windows (being) open. 当天气暖和时,我们常开着窗工作。

Science is a structure of many interlocking disciplines, its growth (being) dependent on man’s desire to understand his environment and himself. 科学是由许多相互联系的学科构成的,它的发展取决于人类期望了解环境及人类本身。

十六、注意虚拟语气中省略 should 的三种情况

I. 在 suggest, propose, order, urge, insist 等动词后面的宾语从句中,或在由先行词 it 引出的句意相近的主语从句中,或在主句中含有要求、劝告、命令、愿望、建议等词语的有关从句中,谓语可用“should + 动词原形”,但有时省去 should。例如:

James ordered that everything (should) be ready before beginning the test. 詹姆士命令一切都要在试验开始前准备好。

It is suggested that the task (should) be fulfilled by 12 o’clock. 有人建议这次任务要在 12 点以前完成。

注:这方面例句较多,详见第 144 节第六项及其注释。

II. 在 it is important, it is necessary, it is time 等后面由 that 引出的从句内的 should 常可省略(详见第 144 节十一)。

It is important that the problem (should) be settled in some or other way. 重要的是使问题用某种方法解决.

It is natural that we (should) prove the theorem first. 很自然,我们首先要证明这条定理。

III. 在以 lest 或 for fear that(惟恐,免得)in case(以防)引导的目的状语从句内,谓语动词“should + 动词原形”可省略其中的 should:

We shall remind him lest (或 for fear that) he (should) forget. 我们要提醒他,免得他忘记。

I explained again and again in case the students (should) misunderstand me. 我一再解释,惟恐学生对我误解。

十七、在用 so + that 连接的从句中省略 so 或 that 的情况(参阅第 99 节、一 例 5,6,7)

We are working hard (so) that we may accomplish the splendid goal of the four modernizations. 我们正在为实现四个现代化的宏伟目标而努力工作。(目的状语从句))

They have done much research work on petroleum so (that) they know more about it. 他们对石油进行了许多研究工作,因此对石油较为熟悉。(结果状语从句)

We are very tired, (so) that we had better hurry home. 我们很累,所以我们还是赶快回家去吧。(结果状语从句)

You are, so fast, I cannot keep pace with you. 你走得这样快,我赶不上你。(后句为程度状语从句省略 that。若用 that,中间逗号不宜用。)

十八、新闻标题要求简练醒目,翻译时更需注意推敲其省略情况及其习惯表示法

Boy 14, rescued from cliff face. 从峭壁上救下 14 岁的男孩(原文相当于 A boy of 14 has been rescued from cliff face.)

SUNK! A QE holiday for 99 old folk. 九十九岁老人乘伊丽莎白二世女王号旅游告吹!(原文相当于:The plan has been sunk that 99 years old folk will travel on holiday in the ship Queen Elizabeth 2.)

Pilot disputes need to abort rescue in Iran. 飞行员对放弃去伊朗营救的必要性提出质疑(原文相当于:A pilot disputes the need to abort the rescue in Iran. )

American President to fly to London. 美国总统将飞往伦敦(相当于“…is to fly to London”。)

Pope visiting poor African nations. 教皇在访问贫穷的非洲国家(相当于“Pope is visiting…”,表示“教皇已在前一、二天到达”。)

注:从上述五个英语新闻标题中可看出:用过去分词表示被动态(上例 1 和 2),用现在一般式表示过去一般时,用动词不定式表示将来一般时,用现在分词表示进行时。

十九、报刊上的广告和手册之类的工具书中的注释性文字省略成份较多,阅读或翻译时也必须注意进行逻辑判别

For Sale:Two modular bedrooms 10 feet by 14 feet, used only 14 years. Built-in devices allow rooms to be moved away as they are. Rooms no longer needed;children married or in college. Will accept any reasonable payment. 出售:两间组合装配式卧室(10×14英尺),仅住用 14 年。固定装置能使卧室原封不动地搬迁。卧室不再需要,因孩子已结婚或上了大学。愿接受合理的价格出售。(根据逻辑判别,used 前省略了 have been,广告则用逗号代之。only 后省略了 for。两个 rooms 前都省略的定冠词 the no longer 前省略了 are。在 children 和 or 后也省略了 are. 在 will 前省略了 I。)

Electrical Energy:The energy associated with electric charges and their movements. Measured in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours. One watt—hour equals 860 calories. 电能:由电荷和电荷运动结合而成的能量。以瓦特小时或千瓦小时计量。1瓦特小时等于 860 卡。

上段文字中第二部分不是一个句子,associated(结合)不是过去时形式,而是过去分词作 energy(能量)的定语。第三部分 measured(测量,计量)也不是过去时,而是过去分词。它与第二部分不同的是把 measured 前的 energy 和 is 省略了。第四部分才是一个完整的句子。辞典或手册有时为了节省篇幅。就采用这样一种压缩文字的办法,因此我们在阅读时就要注意这种特殊情况,学会“对于具体情况作具体的分析”方法,广开思路,特别注意从意义上进行逻辑判断。

二十、注意在一些固定短语中某些介词的省略

have trouble (in) sleeping(他)难于睡着。have a hard time (in) getting gran and coal(他)有一段缺粮少煤的艰苦时期[用过去时]. spend one’s evenings (in) reading novels(她)把晚上时间花费在看小说;be busy (in) doing sth. (他)忙于做某事. They are (of) the same age. 他们年龄相同。There is nouse (in) explaining it to her any more. 这件事再向她解释是无用的。He is carrying out this experiment (in) the same way as I did yesterday. 他使用我昨天采用的方法在做他的实验. She has a son of your age. 她有一个跟你年龄相仿的儿子。

二十一、某些词在第一分句中作宾语(位于句首),而在 and 后的第二分句中作主语(一般省略)的特殊句型

All these facts we have discussed, and are examined by every person. 所有这些事实我们都讨论了,并且由每个人检验。

This conclusion we heard her say something about, and can't be wrong. 这个结论我们听她说过,是不可能错的。

There is a one-seater which you could learn to drive in fifty minutes and would do its fifty miles a gallon. 有一辆单座式汽车,这种汽车你五十分钟就能学会驾驶,并且每消耗一加仑汽油能走 50 英里路。

前两句中的 facts 和 conclusion 分别都是第一分句中的宾语,但同时又是 and 后的第二分句中的被省略的主语。第 3 句从 which… 到句末是定语从句,用以说明 one-seater 的。该定语从句由两个分句构成,which 在第一分句中是宾语,而在 and 后的第二分句里是被省略的主语。

同位语及同位语从句的表示法和判别

在某一句子成分后面有另外的词、短语或从句(同位语从句)对该成分作进一步说明,在语法上又处于同一地位(即作同一个成分),称为同位语。

一、同位语在所说明的句子成分之后,其间没有逗号

Unlike oxygen, the element nitrogen is not active. 与氧不同,元素氮不活泼。(unlike 为介词。)

In today’s China, we returned students are able to do what we could not do before. 在今日的中国我们归国留学生能做过去不能做的事情。

Thanks to the help of the experts they each all obtained great success. 多亏专家的帮助,他们各位都取得了很大的成功。(thanks to 为复合介词。)

They are all familiar with TV home shopping. 他们都熟悉在家进行电视购物。(谓语是 be 时,all 挪后。)

注:all, both, each 作同位语时在句中的位置可参阅第 9,29 ,36节、三。

二、同位语前后有逗号、冒号或破折号。

Yesterday they each saw Dr.Fang, a senior engineer. 昨天他们各位都见到了方博士,他是一位高级工程师。

The simplest atom, the hydrogen atom, contains one proton and one electron. 最简单的原子氢含有一个质子和一个电子。

Henry is there, near the window. 亨利在那边,在窗户附近。

The heat liberated during chemisorption is usually large, of order of the heat of chemical reaction. 化学吸附中放出的热量通常很大,与化学反应热不相上下。

They make different types of computers, each with its characteristics. 他们制造各种型式的计算机,每种各有其自己的特点。

Agnes will visit two cities: Beijing and Shanghai. 阿格尼丝将访问两个城市:北京和上海。

We all have a common desire - to realize the four modernizations in China. 我们都有一个共同的愿望——在中国实现四个现代化。(注意不定式短语作同位语。)

三、用 or 引出同位语

The boiling temperature, or boiling point, is the temperature at which a liquid boils under ordinary pressure. 沸腾温度即沸点,系液体在常压下沸腾的温度。

Under certain conditions this compound splits (或 breaks) up, or decomposes, into two substances. 在一定条件下,该化合物就裂解即分解为两种物质。

This weight equals one kilogram or 2.2046 pounds. 这个重量等于一公斤即 2.2046 磅。

The energy of electric current, or of electricity in motion, may be converted to any other form of energy. 电流的能量即动电的能量,可以转化为任何其它种能量。

四、用 such as 或 as 引出同位语

Some solid fuels, such as wood and coal, are chiefly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 某些固体燃料,例如木头和煤,主要是由碳、氢和氧构成的。

Some building materials such as cement and reinforcing bars are widely used in capital construction. 某些建筑材料,例如水泥和钢筋,广泛使用于基本建设中。

Part of your job as a teacher is to really understand your pupils’ personal problems. 真正地了解你所教的学生的个人问题是你教师工作的一部分。(表示什么职业的工作引出同位语时,as 前不要加 such。)

注:下句把 such 和 as 分开,意义跟上面差不多,但 as 后面则为一个省略了 is 或 are 的定语从句。例如:Our plant produces such chemicals as (are) gasoline, kerosene, vaseline, and paraffin. 我厂生产(像)汽油、煤油、凡士林和石蜡等(那样的)化工产品。

Plastics as a class are not suitable as materials to carry heavy structural loads. 塑料作为一类材料,并不适于作承受重型结构负荷的材料。(第一个 as 引出同位语,而第二个 as 则引出主语补语。)

五、用 of 引出同位语,这时 of 前常是一个概括的名称,of 后是具体的东西或具体数值

This automobile is running at a speed of 70 miles an hour. 该汽车正以每小时 70 英里的速度行驶。

This liquid has a temperature of about 80℃. 该液体的温度为 80℃ 左右。(未按原文结构翻译)

He worked in the city of Tianjin two years ago. 两年前他在天津市工作。

Before Agnes there is a question of what to do first. 在阿格尼丝面前有一个先做什么的问题。

六、用 namely, for example, including, particularly, that is (或 i.e.) 等引出同位语

There are two kinds of charges, namely, positive and negative (charges). 电荷有两种,即正电荷和负电荷。

We have only one way of solving the difficulty, namely, to rely on our own efforts. 我们只有一条解决困难的途径,即依靠自己的努力。

In China there are many cities, for example, Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin. 中国有许多城市,例如北京、上海和天津。

Many of us, including Lin Hua, have been to Beijing zoo. 我们中间有许多人,包括林华在内,都去过北京动物园。

I want to visit these modern factories, especially the one where you work. 我想参观这些现代化的工厂,特别是你工作所在的那个厂。

Weight is directly related to the mass of a body, that is (或 i.e.), to the amount of matter in it. 重量是和物体的质量即物体内的物质数量直接有关的。

七、用连词 that 等引出从句作同位语,称为同位语从句。有时省略 that,造成难点

This experiment leads to the conclusion that unlike charges attract each other. 这个实验导致这样一个结论:异性电荷相吸。

The question "what are things made of?" is answered differently by different kinds of scientists. 物质由什么构成的问题,不同的科学家就有不同的答案。

The modern approach to nature is to ask the more modest question, how things move, and to seek the answer in experiment. 现代对自然研究的方法是提出“物体是怎样运动的”这样一个比较恰如其分的问题,然后通过实验探索其答案。

Then arose the question whom (或 who) we should trust in. 那时就产生了我们应该相信谁的问题。

There can be no doubt that man is certain to turn to the laboratories if nature does not provide stationary materials. 毫无疑问,如果自然界不能提供稳定的材料,人类一定会转向实验室。

The fact that metals can be drawn into wires is known to us. 金属可以拔丝这一事实是我们都知道的。

The thought came to him that the process should be conducted out of contact with the air. 他突然想起,该过程应该在不接触空气的情况下进行。

Lisa told us the news, namely that the new shop would be open on and after next Sunday. 莉萨告诉我们一条消息,即这家新商店将从下星期日起开始营业。(注意同位语从句前加 namely.)

Let me know your college address, that is, where you live in term time. 让我们知道你所在的学校地址,即你上学时所住的地方。(注意同位语从句前加插入句 that is。)

Whenever the teacher mentioned my spelling mistakes in class, I had a feeling he was getting at me. 每当老师在课堂上提起我的拼写错误,我就有一种他在找我岔的感觉。(feeling 后省略了 that。)

注 1:由连词 that 引导的同位语从句,它所说明的词常常是表示抽象概念的名词,例如 fact, idea, question, conclusion, news, doubt, theory, thought, evidence, order, proof, confidence 等。

注 2:同位语从句用疑问词引导时,就不再用 that;引导同位语从句的 that 是连词,本身无实在意思;that 在从句中不作成分。可利用这三点将同位语从句和用 that 引导的定语从句区分开。

注 3:注意同位语从句有时在其前面还可加用 namely, that is, that is to say 等词语(见上面第 8,9 句)。

注 4:有时甚至一个名词可能是整个句子的同位语。例如:The student said that he had missed his lessons because his mother had fallen ill, an excuse which the teacher accepted. 该学生说,他没有上课是因为他母亲病了——这是老师当时原谅他的原因。

八、判别时的几个注意点

Ⅰ. 区别 or 连接并列成分和引出同位语两种情况:

or 引出的短语前后都有逗号时,一般为同位语(见本节、十一、第 1-4 句)。or 前后没有逗号时,主要靠逻辑判别。例如:

In industry certain mixtures of metals or alloys are said to have been developed. 在工业中,人们说某些金属混合物即合金已经大大地发展了。(不要理解为“某些金属或合金的混合物”。)

从另一角度也可这么讲,or 前后两个词或词组表示同一事物,则为同位语,可译为“即”;若 or 前后表示的不是同一事物,则 or 引入两个不同事物,表示选择,可译“或”。

II. 区别用逗号隔开的同位语和一般的并列成分时,主要靠逻辑判断,有时可根据谓语的单复数来加以判别。

The result is carbon steel, one of the most important and useful of all alloys. 产品是碳钢,这是所有合金中最重要和最有用的合金之一。(同位语)

When water is cooled, ice, a solid, is produced. 当水冷却时,有固体冰产生。(主句谓语用单数形式 is,表明主语是一个单数名词。此外,solid 后有逗号,也就否定了它和 ice 并列,而更肯定了 solid 作同位语。)

An explanation of the fact is given by the atomic theory of crystals, the theory that in crystals the atoms are arranged in a regular order. 晶体的原子理论对这一事实作了解释。晶体的原子理论是说原于在晶体内是有规则地排列的。(句中 the theory 后接一个同位语从句,而这个 the theory 连同后面的同位语从句又作前面 the atomic theory of crystals 的同位语。因为本句中两个 theory 不是主语,不能根据谓语单复数来判别,就只能根据逻辑进行判别。)

III. 注意对 of 后引出的同位语的判别。在科技英语中使用这种结构时,of 前常为长度、速度、温度、压力、电阻等度量名称,of 后则为具体数字或代表数字的符号及因次单位。可利用这一点来进行判别。其它情况则注意逻辑判别。

If you lift a load weighing W pounds a distance of S feet, you have done WS foot-pounds of work. 如果你把重 W 磅的负荷举高 S 英尺这样一个距离,则你作了 WS 英尺·磅的功。(of 后的 S feet 为 a distance 的同位语,而句末 WS foot-pounds of work 系“数量词 + of…”结构,不是同位语关系。类似例子如:4 pounds of water 四磅水等。)

The city of Shanghai has been greatly changed. 上海市有了很大变化。(从逻辑上理解,只能是同位语。)

Ⅳ. 注意被说明的名词和同位语从句割裂的情况:

What supporting evidence is there that electrons are outside the nucleus? 有什么有力的证据说明电子是在原子核外面?(由于这是特殊疑问句,evidence 必须随它的定语 what 提到句首。evidence 后面由 that 引导的同位语从句如果也随之提前,就出现“头重脚轻”的句子结构,即主语部分太长,谓语短又位于句子末尾。为避免这种不匀称的句子结构,就产生被说明的名词和同位语从句割裂的现象。)

The question has been put to you whether you will exchange seats with him. 已向你提出了你是否和他调换座位的问题。(若同位语从句位于所说明的名词 question 后面,就会造成“头重脚轻”的句子结构,故两者被迫分割,使句子结构匀称平衡。)

Ⅴ. 注意有时一个名词是整个主句的同位语。例如:

Practice is the sole criterion for testing truth-a principle which should be followed, whether you engage in political activities or scientific and technological work. 实践是检验真理的唯一标准,这是一条必须遵循的原则,不管你从事政治活动还是科技工作。

插入语及插入句用法

插入语通常与句中其它成分没有语法上的关系,多半用逗号与句子隔开,用来表示说话者对句子所表达的意思的态度。插入语可能是一个词、一个短语或一个句子。

一、常用作插入语的副词举例

indeed 的确,certainly 当然,surely 无疑,however 然而,obviously(或 clearly,evidently)显然,apparently 很明显,frankly 坦率地说,naturally 自然,luckily (或 happily) for sb. 算某人幸运,fortunately 幸好,strangely 奇怪,honestly 真的,briefly 简单地说等

This computer is up-to-date, indeed. 这台计算机确是最新式的。

Certainly, she won't go to China Telecom with you. 当然她不会和你一起去中国电信。

Strangely, he has not been to China Unicom. Still more strangely, he has not called me. 奇怪,他未来过中国联通。更奇怪,他没给我打电话。

Fortunately I found the book that I’d lost. 幸亏我找到了已丢失的那本书。(Fortunately 后面也可用逗号。)

注:注意同一个副词有时作插入语,有时却作状语。

1)Frankly, I haven't been to Shanghai Museum yet. 坦率地说,我还未去过上海博物馆。(插入语。但下句中 frankly 作状语。)

2)Could you express your idea frankly? 你能坦诚地表达你的想法吗?

二、形容词或其短语作插入语举例

true 真的,funny 真可笑,strange to say 说也奇怪,need less to say 不用说,most important of all 最为重要的,worse still 更糟糕的等

Strange to say (或 True),he should have done such a thing. 说也奇怪(或真的),他竟然做出这样的事。

Most important of all, you each over-fulfilled your own task. 最为重要的,你们各自超额完成了自己的任务。

三、介词短语作插入语举例

in a few words (或 in sum, in short) 简而言之,in other words 换句话说,in a sense 在某种意义上,in general 一般说来,in my view 在我看来,in his opinion (或 judgement) 按照他的意见(或判断),in conclusion 总之,in summary 概括地说,in fact 事实上,in the first place 首先,in addition 此外,of course 当然,to our knowledge 据我们所知,to her thinking (或 mind) 在她看来,to my joy (或 delight, satisfaction) 使我欣慰(或高兴、满意)的,to their surprise(或 astonishment, amazement)使他们惊奇的,to her regret(或 disappointment)使她遗憾(或失望)的,to my belief 就我所信,for instance (或 example) 例如, as a matter of fact 事实上等

In general, he confined himself to MBA. 一般说来,他所讲的以工商管理为限。(原意:使他自己限于…。)

a. Of course he did not succeed for the lack of experience. 当然,他由于缺乏经验而未成功。

b. Of course I should like everything to be going smoothly. 当然我愿意一切顺利进行。(这种插入语也有不用逗号的。)

She knows much more about computer science than do the other students, for instance (或 example). 例如,她有关计算机科学就比其他同学懂得多。

四、常用作插入语的分词短语举例

strictly speaking 严格地说;generally speaking 一般地说,judging from… 根据……判断等。

Generally speaking, the major reason for soil erosion is the low coverage rate of forestry and grass. 一般说来,土壤侵蚀的主要原因是林地和草地覆盖率低。

Judging from his letter, a campaign against "white pollution" has been undertaken in his hometown. 根据他的来信作出判断,一场抵制“白色污染“的运动已经在他的故乡展开了。

注:不要理解为现在分词短语作状语,因为上两句中的 speaking 和 judging 的动作不是句中主语发出的。

五、常用作插入语的不定式短语举例

so to speak 可说是,or to say 或者说,to be sure 无疑地,to sum up 概括地说,to tell the truth 老实说等

To sum up, success results from hard work. 概括地说,成功是艰苦工作的结果。

To be sure, community service can aid re-employment. 毫无疑问社区服务能有助于再就业。

To start with, China is ready to strengthen scientific and technological co-operation with many countries. 首先,中国准备和许多国家加强科学技术合作。

六、插入句举例

I am sure 可以肯定地说;I believe 我相信;I think (或 suppose) 我想;I hope 我希望;you know 你知道;you see 你明白;I wonder 我不知道;that is(或 i.e. )也就是说;it is said 据说;it seems 看来是;know it 就我们所知;as I see it 照我看来;what is important (或 serious) 重要(或严重)的是;what worries me 使我担心的是;I’m afraid 我怕等

It will result in success, I suppose. 我想,这件事终于会成功的。

I believe, up to the present (time), quite a lot of high technological companies have been built in this district. 我确信,到目前为止已有许多高科技公司在该地区建立起来了。

We left our university last month, that is to say, in May this year. 我们上月离开学校,也就是说,今年五月。

One day, it is said, Newton saw an apple fall from a tree. 据说,有一天牛顿看见一个苹果从树上掉下来。

As we know it, these cities have about one million internet users. 据我们所知,这些城市拥有一百万左右的因特网用户。

What is more important, information super highways can carry great amounts of information around the country quickly and cheaply. 较为重要的是,信息高速公路能把大量信息迅速、便宜地传遍全国。

七、以一般疑问句形式构成的插入句用于特殊疑问句中

How do you think an optical computer is different from your palm computer? 你认为光计算机和你的掌上电脑有什么不同?

what would you suggest we should do today? 今天我们做什么,你有什么建议?

从上面两句中可以看出:插入句是以一般疑问句形式出现,插在疑问词之后,而特殊疑问句本身的主语、谓语仍用陈述句的语序,没有颠倒现象。

倒装语序和成分分割

在英语中,“主语在前,谓语在后”这种语序,一般较为固定。但有时由于语法、修辞、强调、句子结构匀称的需要,引起句中语序变化。凡是主语和谓语位置有变化的句子,就称为“倒装语序”。其它语序变动多半涉及成份分割,也一并在这里讨论。

一、主语和谓语的倒装

Ⅰ. 疑问句(包括反意疑问句句末部分)需要倒装语序(见第 136 节、一)

II. there be 结构的句中,主语一般在谓语之后:

There are 12 months in a year. 一年有十二个月。

There stands an information center building by the river. 河边上矗立着一幢信息中心大楼。

III. 某些表示祝愿的句子采用倒装语序:

Long live the people! 人民万岁!

May you succeed! 祝你成功!

Ⅳ. 句首以否定词 not, not only, never, no, hardly, scarcely, little, no sooner… than, seldom, not until 以及以含有否定词或否定意味的短语(如 in no way, in vain 等)开头的句子,后面的主语、谓语的语序要颠倒。例如:

Not a single word have we written down. 我们一个字也没写下。

Not only is he a scientist, but he is also a poet. 他不仅是一个科学家,而且也是一个诗人。

Never has any country made so much progress in such a short time. 从来没有一个国家在这样短时间内取得这样大的进步。

Hardly (或 scarcely) had the space shuttle landed when the people ran toward it. 航天飞机刚着陆,人们就朝飞机跑去了。

No sooner had they got to the plant than they started to work. 他们一到工厂就开始工作了。

Little does he know about cloning technology. 关于克隆技术他知道极少。

Seldom (或 Rarely) has he met us lately. 他近来很少碰见我们。

No where will you find the answer to this question. 你无论在哪里也找不到这个问题的答案。

Not until midnight did I solve the problem. 直到半夜我才解出这道题。

In no way (或 By no means) does the temperature equal the amount of heat. 温度决不等于热量。

In vain did she try to do it. 她试图作这件事,但白试了。

Ⅴ. 句首是 hence, thus, only, often, many a time, so(作“如此”讲,不作“因此”讲),here 等副词时,主、谓语位置就可能颠倒。以 there, now, then 为句首的句中,后面的谓语为 come, go, follow 时,主语和谓语常颠倒。例如:

Thus ended the lesson. 课就这样结束了。

Only after they had performed hundreds of experiments did they succeed in solving the problem. 只是在做了几百次实验之后,他们才把这一问题解决了。(主句中主、谓语颠倒,而从句内主、谓语不颠倒。)

注 1:当 only 说明主语时,主、谓语就不能颠倒。例如:Only police men can come in. 只有警察才能进入。

Often(或 Many a time)have we tried on the latest fashions in shoes. 我们好多次试穿一些最时髦的鞋子。

So fast does light travel that it is difficult for us to imagine its speed. 光运行得如此之快,我们很难想象它的速度。

Hence comes the name magnet. 由此得出磁铁这个名称。

Now comes your turn. 现在轮到你了。

Then began our new lesson. 于是我们的新课开始了。

Then followed ten years of hard struggle. 接着是十年的艰苦奋斗。

There goes the bell. 铃响了。

Here is the palm computer you want. 这里是你要的掌上电脑。

注2:以 here 为句首的句子,当后面谓语为 be 时,主语和谓语常颠倒。如果主语为人称代词,则主、谓语不颠倒。例如:

Here we are. This is the shopping center. 我们到了。这就是购物中心。

Do you want this video disc?Here you are. 你要这个光盘吗?给你。

Ⅵ. 分句以 so(作“也如此”讲),nor, neither, no more 开头时,主、谓语一般采用疑问句格式的颠倒。例如:

They work hard; so do you. 他们工作努力;你工作也努力。

Production is going up steadily, so is the people’s standard of living. 生产在稳步提高,人民的生活水平也在稳步提高。

Our society has changed and so have the people in it. 社会变了,人也变了。

注:若第二分句只是重复前句意思,则 so 后的主、谓语就不颠倒。例如:Copper conducts electricity; so it does. 铜能导电;它确是这样。

I don't think Joe will come, nor(或neither)will Sidney. 我想乔不会来,锡德尼也不会来。(若后句改为 nor does Sidney,则全句意思变为:我想乔不会来,锡德尼也这样想。)

Ⅶ. 非真实条件从句省略 if 时,就要求该从句采用疑问句格式的主、谓语颠倒。详见第 143 节三、Ⅰ和Ⅲ。

Were there no loss of energy by friction, the motion would continue indefinitely once it had started. 如果不存在由摩擦而产生的能量损失,运动一经开始,就会永远继续下去。

Should the weather be wet, I shall stay at home. 假如万一真的下雨,我就呆在家里。

Ⅶ. 用另外的语序手段表示让步从句。例如:

Much as he likes physics, he likes mathematics better. 虽然他很喜欢物理,但更喜欢数学。

Child as he is, he operates a computer better than I (do). 尽管他是个孩子,但他操作计算机比我好。

Try as I might, I couldn't lift the box. 我使最大劲也抬不动这个箱子。

However hard I try, I cannot understand this question. 尽管我费好大的劲,这个问题我仍未能理解。

All magnets behave the same, be they large or small. (= …the same whether they (may) be large or small。)所有磁体,不论大小,其性质都一样。(意译)

Close though the union of small particle is, we have found ways of breaking them. 虽然微粒结合很紧密,我们还是找到了分裂方法。(本句 close 不颠倒也是可以的。)

Be it quite late, I must go to computer center. 时间虽很晚,但我必须去计算中心。

He said that he would go to the real estate trade center come what might. 他说,不管发生什么事,他也要去房地产交易中心。

Ⅸ. 用语序表示比较从句。例如:

The smaller the particles, the more freely do they move. 粒子越小,运动越自由。(后面主句中的主、谓语也可不颠倒. )

The higher the temperature of the air, the more water vapor can it absorb. 空气温度越高,就能吸收越多的蒸汽。

注意下面两句语序改变,主句和从句的位置也就颠倒。例如:

Therefore a compound is considered the more stable,the smaller its potential energy. 因此,化合物的势能越小,化合物就被认为越稳定。

The velocity of sound is the greater, the greater the elasticity and the less the density of the medium. 介质弹性越大,密度越小,则声音传播的速度就越快。

注:注意含有比例关系的主句常有主、谓语颠倒现象。例如:As is the teacher, so is the pupil. 什么样的老师就有什么样的学生。

Ⅹ. than 连接的比较状语从句中主、谓语有时颠倒。例如:

Alcohols are much more reactive than are ethers. 醇的活性比醚强得多。

The molecules of gases move more freely than do those of liquids and solids. 气体分子运动比液体和固体的分子运动更为自由。

Ⅺ. 引导从句的疑问词和关联词,不管它们在句中作何成分,始终位于从句首部,后面主语、谓语仍按陈述句语序。

I don't know who he is. 我不知他是谁。

He knows little about what was said at the meeting. 关于会上说的内容,他知道极少。

This is the teacher of whom I spoke to you. 这就是我对你说过的那位老师。

That is why we are carrying out the reform and opening policy. 这就是为什么我们实行改革开放政策的原因。

Under which conditions the robot works is one of the important questions. 机器人在哪些条件下工作是重要问题之一。

III. 有时为了使描写的景象更生动,可将与动词构成固定词组的副词 out,in,down,up,away 等词置于句首,而句中主语和谓语顺序颠倒。例如:

Down came the hammer and out flew the sparks. 铁锤一落,火星四射。

Up went the arrow into the air. 箭射上了天。

二、由于语法结构和结构匀称需要而引起的语序变动

He told me in detail how they overcame all the difficulties. 他详细告诉我,他们是如何克服一切困难的。(状语多半位于句末,这里 in detail 提前了。若放在宾语从句之后,则易误认为与从句内的谓语有关。

They discussed with great interest the plan for increasing production. 他们怀着很大兴趣讨论了增产计划。(若状语 with 短语移后,则怕它与谓语相隔远些,也怕它说明 increasing,故移往 discussed 之后。)

You have in "lives" another plural form, a little different from the regular ones. "lives" 一词是与规则变化形式有点不同的另外一种复数形式。(句中宾语由非限制性定语修饰,使宾语部分太长,从而将状语 in "lives" 提前。本句未按原文结构翻译。)

Each chemical clement has as its basic unit one atom which is different from the atoms of every other element. 每种化学元素都以一个原子作为其基本单位,而该原子和所有其它元素的原子是各不相同的。(句中 one atom 是 has 的宾语,本应位于宾语补语 a sits basic unit 的前面。由于 one atom 后面带一个定语从句,使宾语很长,于是采用先出现宾语补语,后出现宾语。)

He considers impossible what is really possible. 本来可能做到的事,他认为不可能做到。(为了使句子结构匀称,把宾语从句放在宾语补语之后。)

The problem arises whether the temperature is high enough. 温度是否够高的问题提出来了。(whether…是 problem 的同位语从句,本应放在 problem 后面,但为了句子结构匀称,不使主句谓语 arises 孤单地留在句末,结果使从句挪到后面。)

No method is known by which it is possible to create energy out of nothing. 人们都知道,不存在凭空就能产生能量的方法。(by which… 为定语从句,修饰句首的主语 method。它本应位于 method 后,但这样会使主语部分太长,谓语太短。为避免“头重脚轻”,定语从句就移到句末。)

Of especial interest are the laws dealing with the effects of forces upon the form and motion of objects. 论述力对物体形状和运动影响的定律具有特殊的意义。(主语 the laws 有较长的后置定语,使主语组合的短语太长,故挪到谓语后,而表语就置于句首。)

三、定语后置。有下列几种情况

Ⅰ. 由 any, some, no, every 等构成的合成代词,其定语都放在这些合成代词的后面。例如:

There is something new in their conclusion. 他们的结论有某种新东西。

There is nothing more precious than time. 没有东西比时间更为宝贵。

There is not anything dissimilar in the behavior of the two gases. 这两种气体的性能没有什么不同的地方。

II. 当定语由单个分词表示,而该分词仍保持有较强的动词意义时用法举例

We must try to get the advanced equipment needed. 我们必须设法得到所需要的先进装备。

These new materials can with stand strong stresses involved and high temperatures developed. 这些新材料能经得住所受到的强大应力和增加的高温。

We study by comparing things known with things unknown. 我们是通过已知事物和未知事物的对比来学习的。

Determine the ratio of oxygen reacting to water formed. 试求参加反应的氧和生成的水之间的比例。

此外,分词在下列词组中一般都放在所修饰的名词后面。例如:the day Following (或 the following day) 下一天;for the time being 目前,暂时;the money required 所需之款;the parties concerned 有关各方面;the mistakes made 已犯的错误等。

但有时过去分词位于所修饰的名词前或后,在意义上有差别:

This is the best computer known. 这是已知的“电脑中”最好的电脑。

This is the best known computer. 这是最有名的电脑。(不一定是最好的电脑,因为 best 仅说明 known。)

III. 必须注意:有些定语习惯于放在某些名词后,但为数不多。例如:

page four. 第四页(基数词作序数词用时,总是位于名词后面。)

sum total. 总额

Money due. 应付之款

China proper is rich in production and dense in population. 中国本土物产丰富,人口稠密.

Ⅳ. 有些常作表语的形容词可作后置定语,并具有表语的力量。

All the people present (= who were present) agreed in taking part in the sports activities. 到场的全体人员都同意参加体育活动。

At that stage in most factories the only fuel available (= which was available)was coal. 在那个阶段,大多数工厂里唯一可用的燃料是煤。

注:属于上述形容词还有 responsible,alive 等。

Ⅴ. 后置定语由形容词短语、不定式短语、分词短语、介词短语表示时举例

Without forces sufficient to overcome the resistance, bodies at rest will never move. 没有足以克服阻力的力,静止的物体决不会运动。(形容词短语作后置定语。)

An atom contains small particles carrying two kinds of electricity. 原子含有带两种电的微粒。(现在分词短语作后置定语。)

How can we obtain water freed of these impurities? 我们如何获得没有这些杂质的水呢?(过去分词短语作后置定语。)

Seal up one end of a glass tube about 34 inches long. 把长约 34 英寸的玻璃管的一端封闭起来。(形容词短语作后置定语。about 34 inches 作形容词 long 的程度状语。)

He carried on the research on new materials capable of with standing strong stresses. 他继续研究能承受强大应力的新材料。(形容词短语作后置定语。)

All countries, big or small, are on a completely equal footing. 国不论大小,都一律平等。(形容词短语作非限制性定语,一般都后置。)

On the table there are five mobile phones all Chinese-made. 桌上有五部移动电话,全都是中国造的。(过去分词短语作非限制性定语,一般都后置。)

These programmers have rich experience in practice. 这些程序员有丰富的实践经验。(介词短语作定语,一般都后置。)

They checked the distribution pipes buried in the streets, taking the water to the houses, shops and factories. 他们检查了埋在街道下面的配水管道,而这些管道将水送入住户、商店和工厂。(现在分词短语作非限制性定语,一般都后置。)

Do you know the professor from Nankai University? 你认识那位来自南开大学的教授吗?(介词短语作定语,一般都后置。)

This is a film about the life of astronauts. 这是一部描绘宇航员生活的影片。(同上)

Our office building, with a floor space of nearly 15 000 sq. m., was built in 1978. 我们的办公楼建筑面积约一万五千平方米,建于 1978 年。(介词短语作非限制性定语,一般都后置。)

Ⅵ. 副词(如 here, there, above 等)作定语时,位置都在所修饰的名词后面。例如:

The computers here are of a new type. 这里的电脑都是新式的。

The table above shows that it is difficult to solve this problem. 上述的表格说明解决这个问题是困难的。

四、强调状语,故状语放在句首

Down came the ceiling. 天花板掉下来了。

Down they went. 他们走下去了。

注:从上两句中可看出,如果主语是人称代词,则主语、谓语不颠倒。

Across the river lies a newly built bridge. 新建的一座桥横跨这条河。

Next door to us lives a senior programmer, Ms. Ye. 我们隔壁住着一位高级程序员叶女士。

To this class of substances belong glass, wood, etc. 属于这类物质的有玻璃、木材等。

Through water, sound travels much faster than through air. 声音通过水的传播比通过空气要快得多。

So ductile is gold that it can be drawn into a fine wire. 金的延展性如此之大,以致能把它拔成很细的丝。

To the list may be added the following names. 名单上还可加上下列名字。

五、强调表语,故表语挪到句首

A very simple experiment it is. 这是十分简单的实验。

Great have been our achievements since 1997. 1997 年以来我们的成就是巨大的。

This substance begins to harden and still harder will it soon become. 这个物质开始硬化,并且它将很快地变得更硬。

Written on the label is the model of the car. 标签上写了汽车的型号。

Such is the case. 情况就是如此。

Terribly hot it certainly was. (当时)天气热得真够厉害。

Very grateful they were for our offer of help. 他们很感谢我们对他们提供帮助。

注:一般说来,当主语为人称代词时,主、谓语并不颠倒。见上例6和7。

Of considerable interest is the nature of oxygen. 氧气的性质相当有意思。

Chief among them are silk, tea and electrical appliances. 其中主要的是丝、茶和家用电器。

Evident, oil is of great use. 显然,石油大有用处。(evident 为主句的表语,oil… 为主语从句,主句省略了谓语 is。)

六、强调谓语中不定式、过去分词和现在分词所表示的动作将其短语置于句首,以表示出强调语气

To be especially considered is construction of some elevated roads. 要特别考虑的是建立几条高架路。

Gone forever are the dark days when China depended on foreign oil. 中国依赖洋油的黑暗日子一去不复返了。

Constantly growing too is the volume of chemical goods. 产量也不断增长的还有化学制品.

Closely associated with the rapid development of national economy is the policy of opening wider to the outside world. 国民经济迅速发展是和对外界扩大开放的政策紧密有关的。

七、强调宾语和宾语从句,把它们挪到句首

All his life Einstein had devoted to efforts to build world peace. 爱因斯坦已把他整个一生献给了为建立世界和平所作的努力。

No defects did the students find in these parts. 在这些零件上,学生们的确没有找到什么缺陷。

Gold they found native. 他们发现金子是原金。(native 在这里是宾语补语。)

Their views we believe to be fair and true. 他们的见解我们认为是中肯和真实的。

What she says you can rely on. 她说的话你可以信赖。

But who the author was, no one could guess. 但作者是谁,没有人猜得出来。

What they wanted to do in 10 days, they finished in two. 原来想用十天做的事,他们两天就做完了。

注:在上述情况下,主句的主语、谓语一般不颠倒。

八、强调宾语补语,把宾语补语挪前

Written on the label you have seen 110 volts. 你已经见到 110 伏特写在标签上了。

Don't let fly away this little strange bird. 别让这只奇怪的小鸟飞走.

Modern physics will make possible synthetic production of the elements. 现代物理将使元素的人工合成生产成为可能. (也可理解为宾语部分太长,就让宾语补语挪前。)

九、注意某些词或成分在句中的位置

Ⅰ. enough, conceivable, possible 等词作定语时,其位置也有可能在所修饰的名词之后,而 enough 修饰形容词、副词时,必须在其后。例如:

We have time enough to do the three experiments. 我们有足够的时间去做这三个实验。(句中 enough 也可位于 time 前。)

He walks fast enough. 他走得够快. (enough 不可用于副词之前。)

The temperature is high enough to melt this substance. 温度够高,足以将该物体熔化。(enough 不可用于形容词之前。)

We must try to help them in every way possible. 我们必须设法以一切可能的方式帮助他们。

We must take every means conceivable into consideration. 我们必须考虑一切可能设想的办法。

II. 注意 only 或 alone 的词序和所修饰的词之间的关系:

This is the only example that they know. 他们所知道的例子只有这一个。(句中 only 在名词前作形容词用,作“唯一的”、“仅有的”讲。)

Today he can only repair the two cellular phones.(= Today he can repair the two cellular phones only.)今天他只能修理这两部蜂窝式移动电话。

Only She (或 She alone)did the test. 只有她做了这个试验。

She only did the test yesterday. 她昨天只不过做了这个试验。

Give a signal only to this instrument. 只对这个仪表给一个信号。

It is right only because people look at the question practically. 这之所以对,只是因为人们从实际出发来观察问题。

Only in that way did we construct such a road fly over. 当时我们只是用那种方法来建造这样一条路的立交桥。(only 位于句首并且不修饰主语时,句中主、谓语要颠倒。)

III. 注意 more 和 by far 的位置:

Add more than 50 grams of salt to the water. 将 50 多克盐加于水中。

Add 50 more grams of salt to the water. 再加 50 克盐于水中。

This is by far the best condition. 这是最最好的条件。

It is better by far. 这好得多了。(= …is much better,)

Ⅳ. 注意 well 对动词的位置:

They may account well for the GDP growth rate. 他们可能很好地解释国内生产总值增长率。

但当 well 位于情态动词 may, can 和其后的动词原形中间时,则意思变为“完全可能”、“大大可以”. 例如:

a. They may well account for the economic growth rate. 他们完全可以解释经济增长率。

b. You may as well account for the rapid development of Beijing’s international tourism industry. 你不妨解释一下北京国际旅游业的迅速发展。(由“…还是解释…为好”引申过来)。

Ⅴ. 注意 than 后面的从句有时有主、谓颠倒的现象:

Copper wire allows a large current than does iron wire. 铜线比铁线能容许更大的电流通过。

十、在复合谓语中间或非谓语动词短语中间插人其它成分

I have never been in my life so kindly treated. 我一生中从来没有受到如此亲切的接待。

This question has never been completely settled. 这个问题从未得到完全的解决。

We should by all means develop our tertiary industry. 我们应该想方设法发展第三产业。

He remembered having once carried out that test at ordinary temperature. 他记得曾一度在常温下进行过那种试验。

Pressure is believed to considerably raise the boiling point of fa liquid. 我们相信压力颇能升高液体的沸点。

These young people may, if they study and work hard, make great achievements in their research work. 这些年青人,如果努力学习和工作,就可以在研究工作中取得很大成就。

I had not, until (或 till) then, found my lost watch in the corner of the bedroom. 我到那时才在卧室角落找到我丢失的表。

十一、定语、定语从句或同位语从句同中心词的分隔

Ⅰ. 定语同中心词的分隔:

A list has been drawn up of words we learned so far. 一张学到目前为止的单词表已经(被)列出来了。

A good understanding has been obtained of the reform of the commercial systems which are carried out in many cities. 对于许多城市实行的商业系统的改革已有了很好的理解。(介词 of 短语是说明谓语前面的 understanding 的。)

A16-candle-power lamp has a resistance when (it is) hot of 220 ohms. 16 烛光灯通电后的电阻为 220 欧姆。

The principle here is to give students as many opportunities as possible of actually using their English in plainly imagined situations which duplicate as closely as possible the conditions of real life. 这里的原则是要尽可能多地给学生在简单清楚的设想场合下积极使用英语的机会,而这种场合尽可能完全地模拟真实生活的状况。 (of actually using… situations 是修饰 opportunities 的。which 是 situations 的定语从句,而 as closely as possible 是状语,使动词 duplicate 及其宾语 the conditions 分割开。)

II. 定语从句通常紧跟在所修饰的中心词之后,但有时由于下列两种情况使定语从句和中心词分隔开。这两种情况是:

A. 被分隔的中心词带有后置定语,而该定语由介词短语、分词短语和形容词短语等组成。例如:

We often say that there are some more places left on the earth where the foot of man has not trodden. 我们常说,地球上还留下一些地方是绝无人迹的。(过去分词短语使中心词和定语从句分隔。)

You remember that electric charges, positive and negative, which are responsible for electrical forces,can wipe one another out and disappear. 你还记得,担负电力的正负电荷是能够相互抵消和消失的。(形容词短语使中心词和定语从句分隔。)

B. 定语从句说明主句中的主语,但为了不使主语部分太长而谓语被远抛在句末,同时也是为了使整个句子结构匀称,定语或定语从句没有紧接主句的主语,而是被其它成分隔开。例如:

An interesting second method may be found which is also consistent with the equation. 可以找到一个令人感兴趣的第二种(计算)方法,而它也是符合这个方程式的。

Very wonderful changes in matter take place before our eyes every day to which we pay little attention. 我们不甚注意物质中的那些很奇异的变化,但它们在我们眼前却每天发生。

All is not gold that glitters. 灿烂者非皆黄金。(或:中看的未必都中用。)

No student came to class but brought his book. (或… class who did not bring his book.) 没有一个学生不带书来上课。(句中 but 为关系代词,等于 that not。)

No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a source at a single temperature and the conversion of this heat completely into mechanical work. 不可能有一种过程,其单一的结果是从某一温度(下)的热源吸收热量并且全部地将该热量转变为机械功。

C. 同位语从句和中心词的分隔:

Earlier the idea was proposed that there is no material but will deform more or less under the action of forces. 更早些时候就提出过这样的看法:各种材料在力的作用下多少会有些变形。(that 引出同位语从句。若它按常规放在中心词 idea 后面,则上句在结构上就出现主语部分太长,谓语太短的“头重脚轻”现象。因此,分割是为了使句子结构匀称和平衡。)

What supporting evidence is there that it is necessary to develop the technology intensive economy? 有什么强有力的证据可说明必须发展科技密集型经济?(同上)

十二、非常语序和成分分割引起的难点综合判断

Aware as we are of the significance of the four modernizations, shall we not, one and all, offer our best towards their earIy realization. 虽然我们认识到四个现代化的意义,难道我们每个人将不会为它们的早日实现付出最大的努力吗?(句首由 as 通过非常语序引出让步状语从句,one and all 分割了主句的复合谓语。)(主句)(主语从句)(同位语从句)

It must be kept in mind that the general statement can be made that whereever there is motion there is friction. 必须牢记,可行的一般说法是:哪里有运动,哪里就有摩擦。(第二个 that 引出同位语从句,其中心词 the general statement 被谓语 can be made隔开。按理同位语从句应在 statement 之后但这样做,主语部分(包括同位语从句)就太长,而谓语在句末太短,引起“虎头蛇尾”现象。为使句子结构匀称,就采用本句成分割裂的句子结构。)

There have been opened up to the vast and excellent science,in which my work is the beginning,way sand means by which other minds more acute than mine will explore its remote corners. 通往科学这个无比美好的广阔领域的道路和手段已经展现在眼前。在科学领域里,我的研究只是个开端。比我敏锐的其它想法,将利用已展现的道路和手段,来探索科学领域的遥远境地。(主句内的主语为 way sand means(注意它们并不和前面的 the beginning 构成并列成分)。由于该主语后跟有 by which 引出的定语从句,所以主语部分太长,不宜于放在句首正常位置上,于是就让谓语位于句前,先用 there 置于句首,充一个数,而将真正的主语挪到谓语的后面。to the vast and excellent science 也修饰主语 way sand means,本应放在该主语后面由于在修饰主语的介词短语中,介词宾语 science 后面又有一个非限制性定语从句来修饰,加上主语 way sand means 已有一个定语从句了,使得该介词短语无法放在所修饰的主语后面,于是就放在谓语后面。the beginning 是第一个定语从句内的表语。形容词短语 more acute than mine 修饰第二个定语从句内的主语,而 than 又引出一个以省略句形式出现的比较状语从句。译文用了三个独立的句子,采用分译和变序翻译相结合的方法。)

数字或数量大小、数的增减、倍数和分数表示法

英语中数字大小、数的增减、倍数和分数表示法跟汉语差别较大,现归纳为下列几种。

一、数字大小表示法

Ⅰ.

twenty (或 as core of) cordless phones 二十部无绳电话

two scores of Web addresses 四十个万维网址

II.

(more than / over / above) 50 五十多

(less than / under / below) 50 五十来(个),不到五十,五十以下

III.

Today’s room temperature is below 20℃。今天室温低于 20 ℃。

They have turned out almost (或 close upon) a thousand pieces of multi-media computers. 他们已生产了近千台多媒体计算机。 Here came nearly fifty students. 近五十名学生来到了这里。

He was back toward(s) 9 o'clock. 他将近九点回来的。

Ⅳ.

50 more 再(加)50

ten more days 再十天

First add 25 grams of salt to the water. Then add 20 more grams of salt to it. 先加 25 克盐于水中,然后再加上 20 克盐。

Ⅴ.

a mile or more 一英里或一英里多些

a long mile 一英里还多

a mile or less 一英里或不到一英里

a long hundred 一百二十

a long hour 足足一小时

a gross 一箩(=12 打或 144)

a small gross 一百二十个,十打

a dozen 一打;

dozens 几十,几打

a score二十; a score of boys 二十个男孩;

scores of problems 许多问题

a decade 十;

decades 几十

Ⅵ.

two hundred odd (或 two odd hundred) girls 二百多个女孩

twenty (odd / and odd) 二十多,二十有余,不到三十

From twenty to thirty 从二十到三十

twenty to thirty 从二十到三十

between twenty to thirty 二十到三十之间

注 1:ten(或 twenty) to one 和 two to one 是英语惯用语,都作“十之八九”讲,用于对某一事物的估计,表示“几乎”、“必定”等含义。例如:

Ten to one it will rain tomorrow. 明天十之八九要下雨。

It is ten to one that she will be late. 十之八九她要迟到。

注 2:在体育比赛场合下说“two to five”,就不能理解为 2 到 5,而应理解为 2 比 5。有时口语中 to 还可省略,但说时中间有停顿。

Ⅷ.

some thirty feet = around (或<英> round) thirty feet = about thirty feet = thirty feet or so 大约三十英尺

approximately (或 roughly) ten miles= towards ten miles 接近 10 英里或略计 10 英里

in the neighbourhood of thirty kilometers = thirty kilometers or there about(s) 30公里左右

It is something like four hours = It is more like four hours 大概4个小时。

I have been up for like six days. 我起床走动差不多有六天了。

This electronic dictionary cost me something 30 US dollars. 这本电子辞典花了我 30 美元左右。

There are some four or five answers to this question. 这个问题约有四、五个答案。

Ⅸ.

one hundred and fifty 一百五十

fifty-fifty 各半,平均地

Six and six make (或 makes) twelve. 6 + 6 = 12 (= Six plus six makes twelve. )

hundreds of people 好几百人

thousands of people 好几千人,成千上万个人

tons of people 许许多多人

thousands upon thousands of people (或 hundreds of thousands of people) 成千上万个人,许许多多人,无数的人

a hundred and one (或 a thousand and one) other factories 许多其它工厂(注意:若用 one 代替 a, 则变为“一百零一和一千零一”)

a few hundredths of… …的百分之几

within a factor of ten 在一个 10 的数量级范围内

By 1973, the production of steel had reached 23 million tons, a more than 140-fold increase over 1949. 到 1973 年,钢产量已达二千三百万吨,比 1949 年增加 140 倍以上。(斜体字部分为同位语)

二、英语“大量…、许多…、相当多…、一大堆…、无数…、不少…、大多数 …、少量…、没多少(个)…等”短语汇总。注意举例中用可数、不可数名词问题

a lot of… 许多(人或房子等);

lots of… 好多(小孩或时间等);

lots and lots of… 许许多多(妇女或书等)。

many teachers = many a teacher 许多教师(后者体裁文雅些,作主语时其谓语或代词按第三人称单数表示);

a great (或 good) many… 好多(青年或房间等)

much… 许多(水或钱等)[后接不可数名词],very much rain 很多雨水

a large (或 great, good) quantity of… 大量(油、楼等);

vast quantities of… 大量或极多的(水果、苹果或大米等);

a quantity of…一批(篮子即 baskets 等);

a generous quantity of beer 大量啤酒

a great (或 large) number of… 大量或许多(人或钢笔等);

any number of… 好多(次即 times);非常多的(小孩等);

numbers of… 许多(学生或书等);

a number of… 若干或许多(人或椅子等);

times out of number = times without (或 beyond) number 无数次,常常;

beyond number 无数的或无数地[作后置定语或状语]

plenty of… 大量(时间或资源即 resources 等),许多(老师等)

a mint of… 大量(麻烦即 troubles 或钱等)

a (great) store of… 大量(油或事实等);

a definite store of… 一定量的(水或故事即 stories 等)

a wealth of… 大量的(知识即 knowledge 或单词即 words 等);

the wealth of phrases 这许多短语

a portion of… 一部分(田地即 the field 等),一份(冰淇淋等);

a large portion of the air force 大批空军

a world of waters 一片汪洋;

a world of good 一大堆好处;

worlds (或 a world) of novels 大量(或很多很多)小说

a variety of goods 各种货物;

a large (或 great) variety of reasons 种种理由

a host of (或 hosts of)… 大量(农民等),好多(问题等)

a supply of food 一些食物;

a large (或 a good) supply of… 一大批(酒即 wine 等);

large supplies of… 大量(食盐即 table salt 等)

a part of… 一部分(网友即 net friends 等);

part of… 部分(他的知识即 his knowledge);

(a) great part of the novel 小说的大部分情节;

work for the best part of a month 工作近一个月的时间;

stand for the better part of an hour 站立足有半个多小时;

the most part of her work 她工作的绝大部分

most… 大多数(女孩等),大部分(油等);

most of them 他们中间的大多数;

most of the liquid 这种液体中的大部分

a multitude of… 许多(学生等),种种(事实等);

multitudes (或 a multitude) of… 许许多多(项目即projects等)

a mass of…大量(资料即 data),一堆(沙等);

the large(或 great)masses of… 大多数(工人等),大多数(出口货即 exports);

a mass audience 大量听众或观众;

a mass production 大量生产

a majority of… 多数(工人等);

the great (或 vast) majority of… 绝大多数(学生等);

a majority stockholder in the company 一位在公司内控股的股东

a large (或 great) a mount of… 大量(信息即 information 等)[后接不可数名词];

quite an amount of …相当大量的(水、雪等);

any amount of… 任何数量的(油等),大量的(雨等);

no amount of… 即使再多的(水等)也不

a large fraction of…(原价即 the original price) 的大部分;

a fraction of a second 一瞬间或顷刻[由“一秒的几分之一”引申过来]

a great bulk of her time 她的很大部分时间;

the bulk of my income 我的大部分收入,the bulk of the students 大多数学生

a great (或 good) deal of… 许多(糖即 sugar 等)[后接不可数名词]

a nice bit of… 很多或不少(钱)[后接不可数名词]

Few books 没多少本书;

a few books 几本书;

a good few… 不少(书等)

little salt 没多少盐;

a little salt 少许盐[只用于不可数名词]

a small quantity of… 少数(小孩),少量(油等)

a small amount of… 少量(水)[只用于不可数名词]

a bit of… 一小块(地即 land),一点(时间),一点(好处即 good);

get a bit of rest 休息片刻;

be a bit of a boy 有点像男孩;

make a bit of a mistake(你)犯一点错误;

be a bit (或 little) tired(我)有点累;

be not a bit tired (他们)一点也不累;

must have a bit of a chat with him(我)必须跟他好好谈一谈[注意这里 a bit of…作“相当数量的…”讲,因此要注意上下文]

注意“quite+有关词”表示“数量相当大、相当多、不少…”之意。例如:

quite a number of… 相当多的(人或书);

quite a lot of… 很多(人、书等);

quite some time 相当多的时间;

quite a long time 相当长的时间;

quite a little work (或 while) 不少工作(或时间);

quite a few days 不少天等

三、数的增减和倍数表示法

Ⅰ. “……+数字(或倍数、不定数)+ 比较级 + than +……”结构的用法。这里数字表示净增减的数量,而倍数有时是净增加的倍数或减到 1/n-1,更多地则不是净增加的倍数,却是只增加 n-1 倍。

X is two more than Y. X 比 Y 多 2。

Y is two less than Z. Y 比 Z 少 2。

Wheel A turns twenty percent faster than wheel B. A 轮转动比 B 轮快 20%。

You may take a few more hard disks. 你可以再拿几个硬盘。

Better dresses have been reduced to prices as low as half price and some lower. 较好的服装已减价一半,甚至比半价还低一些。

This room is three time larger than that one. 这个房间比那间大两倍(或)三倍。(“大三倍“可参阅《英语惯用法词典》第 672 页)。为此必须注意上下文和说话人的具体情况。但大多数美国人仍理解为“大两倍”。必须注意,若增加一倍,一般不用上述句型结构,而要改用下面第 Ⅲ 项“twice + as + 形容词或副词 + as +…“的表示法。此外,要注意到”倍数 + 比较级 + than +…”更多地仅是增加 n-1 倍。

C is twice thinner than D. C 的厚度是 D 的 1/2。(由“C 的薄度是 D 的两倍”转译过来。)

Mt.Jolmo Lungma is 8,882 m high,about two and a half times higher than Mt. Fuji. 珠穆朗玛峰高8,882米,比富士山高一倍半左右。

注:表示倍数增减时,最好用下列第 Ⅲ 种表示法。

II. “主语 + be 的变化 + 倍数或百分数+ upon(或 over)+ 被比的对象”表示净增加的倍数或百分数。例如:

The grain output of last year in this province was 20% over (或 upon) that of 1997. 这个省去年的粮食产量比 1997 年增加百分之二十。

Agricultural output for this year is estimated to be 4% up on(或 over)last year. 农业产量估计比去年增长百分之 4。

III. “…倍数 + as + 形容词或副词 + as +…”——本句型中实际上净增加 n-1 倍或减少到 l/n(或减少(n-l)/n。例如:

A is twice as long as B. A 的长度是 B 的两倍。(或译:A 比 B 长一倍。)

In 1959 we produced a hundred-fold as much steel as we did in 1949. 在 1959 午我们生产的钢是 1949 年的一百倍.

The moon is much smaller than the earth and you weigh six times less. 月亮比地球小得多,因此你体重减少六分之五。

This substance reacts three times as fast as the other one. 这个物质的反应速度是另一物质的三倍。(意指快两倍。)

试比较:This substance reacts one-tenth as fast as the other one. 这个物质的反应速度是另一物质的十分之一。(或译:这一物质的反应速度比另一物质慢十分之九。)

Ⅳ. “as + 形容词(如 high, many, much 等)+ as + 具体数字” 表示“(高、多)达…(具体数字)”之意:

The temperature is as high as 6000℃。温度高达 6000℃。

Some layers between the third and last layers of the atom contain as many as 32 electrons. 该原子内第三层和最外层之间的一些电子层,含有(多达)32 个电子。

Ⅴ. “……+ as much(或 many, fast 等)again as + ……”表示净增加一倍:

Wheel A turns as fast again as wheel B. A 轮转动比 B 轮快一倍。

This wire is as long again as that one. 这根金属线比那根长一倍。(或译:这根金属线的长度是那根金属线的两倍。)

注:上面两句中的 again 也可移到第一个 as 的前面。

Ⅵ. “…+ half as much (或 many, fast 等)again as + …”表示净增加半倍,即是后面被比对象的一倍半。例如:

The amount left was estimated to be half as much again (或 half again as much) as all the copper that has been mined. 当时估计铜的剩余数量是已开采的铜的总量的一倍半。

Ⅶ. “…+ by + 数字 +…”结构

当本句型中有比较级出现或有表示增减意义的动词或分词出现时,by 后表示的都是净增减的数。

A is longer than B by 2 inches = A is 2 inches longer than B. A 比 B 长二英寸。

The prime cost decreased by 60%. 主要成本降低了 60%。

This year the value of our industrial output has increased by half as compared with that of last year. 今年我们工业的产值比去年增加一半. (若增加一倍,则将 by half 改为 twice 即可。)

100 increased by 200 is 300. 100 加上 200 等于 300。

300 decreased by 100 is 200. 300 减去 100 等于 200。

By 2020 the earth’s population should exceed the present figure by two billion. 到 2020 年,世界人口应比目前数字超出20亿。

Ⅷ. “表示增减意义的谓语 + by a factor of n”只表示增加 n-1 倍或减小 (n-1)/n 例如:

The error probability is greater than that one by a factor of at least 6. 这个误差概率比那个至少大五倍。

The electronic brains under development will reduce the error probability by a factor of 7. 正在研制的电脑将使误差概率降低 6/7。(或译“…降到 1/7”。)

The speed exceeds the average speed by a factor of 4(或 by three times). 该速度超过平均速度三倍。

Ⅸ. “……倍数(或分数)+数词或名词+……”——本句型中实际数值是倍数(或分数)乘上后面的数词或名词(包括 what 引出的名词从句)所表示的值。例如:

Four times two is eight. 4 乘 2 得 8。(或“4倍的2为8”。)

The earth is 49 times the size of the moon. 地球的大小是月球的 49 倍。

The mass of an electron is 1/1850 that of a hydrogen atom. 电子质量是氢原子质量的 1/1850。

The velocity of sound in water is 4,900 ft. per second, or more than four time its velocity in air. 水中声速为每秒 4900 英尺,比空气中的声速大三倍多。(直译则为:…是空气中声速的四倍多。)

The depth of water in the first tube is less than half that in the other. 第一根试管内水的高度比另一根试管中的浅一半还多。

Our factory today is twice what it was two years ago. 今日我厂是两年前我厂规模的两倍。

Ⅹ. “表示增减意义的动词或分词 + to + 数字 +……”一本句型表示增加到(或减少到)某个数目。例如:

The members have increased [或 decreased] to 100. 成员增加[或减少]到 100 名.

In 1933, industrial output in the USA sunk (或 fell) to 65 percent of the output in 1929. 美国在 1933 年的工业品出口降到 1929 年水准的百分之六十五。

必须注意,若 to 后面接倍数,则仅增加 n-1 倍。例如:

Last year, the production of different kinds of machine tools in our plant increased to three times compared with 1999. (句中 to 还可省略,句义不变。)去年我厂各种机床的生产比 1999 年增加两倍。

Ⅺ. “增减意义的谓语或词组十倍数”或“n-fold increase 或 decrease(名词)” 都表示增加 n-1 倍或减少 n-1/n 例如:

The output of coal has been increased three times as against 1992. 煤产量比 1992 年增加了两倍。

The sales of industrial electronic products have multiplied six times since 1996. 自 1996 年以来,工业电子产品销售量增加了五倍。

Switching time of the new—type transistor is shortened 3 times. 新型晶体管的开关时间缩短了三分之二。(或译为“……缩短到原来的三分之一”。)

Total output value of Tianjin’s textile industry has grown 3.2-fold since 1986. 自 1986 年以来,天津的纺织工业总产值增长了 2.2 倍。

The principal advantage over the old-fashioned machine is a four-fold reduction in weight. 与旧式机器相比的主要优点是重量减少了四分之三。

There is a 50% increase of steel as compared with last year. 钢产量比去年增加50%。

Ⅻ. “增减意义的谓语或词组+百分数”表示净增减的百分数,并和百分数前面用 by 时的含义相同。表示净增减值时,用 by 和不用 by 均可,而且意思相同。例如:

The oil used by this factory has been decreased (by) 5% in comparison with last year. 该厂用油量比去年减少 5%。

The output value of our factory for 1998 increased (by) 20% (as) compared with that of 1997. 我厂 1998 年的产值比 1997 年增长百分之二十。

XIII. 当倍数特别大而且一倍之差微不足道时,对于增加的倍数不采用 n-1 倍的译法。例如:

The mass of the sun is 332 000 times greater than that of the earth. 太阳的质量为地球的 332000 倍。(或译:太阳质量比地球大 332000倍。)

The thermal conductivity of metals is as much as several hundred times that of glass. 金属的导热率比玻璃高数百倍。(句中“数百倍”的“数”必须译出。由于倍数大,不必减去基数本身的一倍. )

XIV. 用 too 时的数量或程度上的增减情况:

It is too long by half. 它过长一半。

He has given me six books too few (或 many). 他少[或多]给了我六本书。(注意不能说※… six too many(或few)books. )

This rod is 3 inches too long. 这杆过长 3 英寸。

He is going on a little too slowly. 他进行得太慢了一点。

XV. 注意由一些数词组成的词组:

The current flows through T1 and T2 on a fifty-fifty basis (或 on a half and half basis). 电流平均地流过 T1和T2。

The current has been split into halves. 电流分成两半。

Ten to one, we shall overfulfil our production plan for this year. 十之八九,我们将超额完成今年生产计划。

三、“基数词等+序数词”构成分数

one third 三分之一;

two thirds 三分之二;

one(或 a)hundredth (=one percent) 百分之一;

three twenty-fifths, 二十五分之三;

two and a half 二又二分之一

three and a third 三又三分之一

a few tenths of the given volume 给定的体积的十分之几等

Give me a third. 给我三分之一。

The appearance of the discharge tube at a pressure of a few tenths of a millimeter of mercury is shown schematically in Fig.2. 图 2 所示的是压强为零点几毫米汞柱时,放电管的大致外形。

语法—逻辑判断—正确理解

懂得英语语法和句型固然重要,但切不可把它们看作一成不变的东西。有时,固定词组和语法结构只能提供在一般情况下应该如何理解,或者提供几种可能的理解。至于在具体句子和一定上下文中应作如何理解和翻译,还得靠原文的上下文、语义分析以及超语言因素来进行逻辑判断。这里的超语言因素是指话语的内容、交际环境和言语活动的参加者(说、写的人与听、读的人)。因此,本专题探讨的内容是如何正确理解和翻译那些只凭固定结构和语法分析已无能为力的句子。讨论时,不局限于语法分析,而是侧重于从上下文、超语言因素、语义分析,提出综合的逻辑判断的重要性。在这里,逻辑判断及其分析应理解为根据上下文、语义分析、超语言因素等对原文意思进行综合的判断和理解的过程。这里拟在实例基础上,从下列十个方面探索逻辑判断方面的运用情况。

一、固定搭配相同,由于上下文不同,句义可能发生变化;必须进行逻辑判断,以求对原文语义有正确的理解和翻译

a. He ran into the office to find the cause of the trouble of the machine. 他跑入办公室寻找机器故障原因。

b. They ran into a train of troubles while working here. 他们在这里工作期间遇到了一连串的麻烦。

c. Quite a few engineers ran out of the office to the information center. 不少工程师跑出办公室奔向信息中心。

d. The pilot has run out of fuel. 飞行员已将燃料耗尽。

上述 a,b 两句用的都是 ran into,由于下文不同,ran into 含义就变了。同理,c, d 两句中的 run out of,也由于具体搭配不同,而使语义发生很大差别。根据上下文进行逻辑判断,可排除 run into 的多义性,使它在具体句中只表示单个语义。

a. This is a tower of a building. 这是一座宝塔式的大楼。(不能理解为 of a building 修饰 a tower, 应把 a tower of 理解为“像宝塔一般的”,修饰后面的 a building。这里前后两个不定冠词必须使用。)

b. Astonishing as it seems, this whole series of actions takes place in a tiny fraction of a second. 尽管看起来似乎令人惊讶。但整个一系列动作都发生在极其短促的几分之一秒内。(本句内也有“a… of a…”结构,但不能按 1)句相同结构来理解。由此可见根据上下文进行逻辑判断的重要性。)

If a young woman of today could go back in time and call on her great-grandmother, she would probably be surprised at the heavy iron pots and pans being used in an old-fashioned kitchen. 假如今日的年轻妇女能够回到以往的年代去拜望她的曾祖母,她可能会对老式厨房里使用沉重的铁壶和铁锅感到惊讶。(句中 in time 只能作“在时间方面”讲。虽然在翻译时它未直接译出,但在译文中却含有此意。)

二、有时英语代词指代的内容也要靠逻辑判断来确定

a. When his watch broke, John had to get someone to repair it. 约翰的表摔了,他得请人修理。(句中 his 指 John 而言。)

b. Allen is John’s younger brother. When his watch broke, John had to get someone to repair it. 埃伦是约翰的弟弟。他的表摔了,约翰就得请人修理。(由于上文不同,句中 his 指 Allen 而言。)

"You must read Archimedes and Euclid." he said "They lived a long time ago. but we still use their books. Archimedes was like you (Galileo)——he was always making experiments!" 你必须读阿基米德和欧几里得的著作。他说道,“他们生活的年代离现在很远,但我们仍然使用他们的书。阿基米德像你(指伽利略)一样,那时一直在做实验!”(第一句中的两个人名只能按“他们的著作”来理解,而后面的 They 却仍指他们两个人。)

What is fever? Simply defined, it is a state in which your body temperature has risen abnormally. 什么是发烧?简单的定义是体温不正常上升的状况。(句中 your 是泛指,不限于指你的,也包括我的和他们的在内。何况这里是为发烧下一个简单的定义,更不必突出“你的”体温。因此,也就不必译出 your。)

Talking to yourself is the first sign of madness. 自言自语是神精病的第一个症状。(句中 yourself 也是泛指. )

三、有时关系代词 which 或介词短语等具体修饰或说明什么,还需要逻辑判断

The integrated circuits have found immediate application in computers and other digital systems which are called upon to do larger and more complicated tasks much faster than ever before. 集成电路在计算和其它数字系统中获得了即时应用,而我们需要计算机和其它数字系统空前迅速地完成庞大复杂的任务。(根据超语言知识即计算机方面的知识,可确定句中 which 只与前面介词 in 后面的两个宾语有关。than ever before 是说明 much faster 的,而与 larger 和 more complicated 无关。)

Induction is a method of charging a conductor from a charged object which does not require bringing the two into contact. 电感应是带电体对导体的充电方法。这种方法不要求这两物体进行接触。(句中 which 并不修饰最靠近的名词性词组 a charged object, 也不修饰 a conductor, 又不修饰名词短语 charging…,而是修饰以 a method 为中心词的整个词组。这只能靠逻辑判断。)

Burbank has been called the plant magician because he could do things with plants which were as amazing as the tricks of a magician. 伯班克被誉为植物魔术师,因为他在植物方面所做的工作,宛如魔术师变魔术一样,令人目瞪口呆。(句中 which 越过做状语的介词短语 with plants,说明前面的 things,而与最靠近的 plants 无关。这也只能靠逻辑判别。)

The sun warms the earth, which makes it possible for plants to grow. 太阳照热地球,这使植物有可能生长。(句中 which 可能修饰 the earth,也可能代替前面主句整个意思。这时就得由逻辑判断来确定 which 的含义。显然,这里 which 代表主句整个意思。)

A full flow filter shall be installed in the discharge line and as trainer in the suction line of each replenishment pump. 在每台补给泵的排出管路中务必安装全流过滤器,而在该泵的吸入管路中务必装上滤净器。(句中 of each replenishment pump 不仅与 the suction 有关,同时也与前面 the discharge line 有关。and a strainer 后省略了shall be installed。这些都得靠逻辑判断。)

四、where,when,while 等易混淆的语法功能及其含义也要靠逻辑判断来确定

It is still a question at issue where we shall carry out research. 在何处进行研究还是个未解决的问题。(句中 where 有可能引出定语从句、地点状语从句或主语从句,最后确定 where 具有疑问词“何处”含义并引出主语从句。这也是综合分析和逻辑判断的结果。)

In the international trade in oil the Caribbean was the chief supplier, followed by USA and the Middle East, where Iraq became a producer in 1932 and Saudi Arabia in 1938, exports beginning in 1934 and 1939, respectively. 在国际石油贸易中,加勒比海是主要的供油地区,其次是美国和中东。在中东地区,伊拉克于 1932 年成为产油国,而沙特阿拉伯于 1938 年成为产油国,它们分别在 1934 年和 1939 年开始出口石油。(首先通过逻辑判断确定句中 where 引出了非限制性定语从句。其次根据地理知识确定该从句只修饰最靠近的 the Middle East,而不是修饰前面的 the USA 和 the Middle East 两者,因为只有伊拉克和沙特阿拉伯是和 the Middle East 有关的。在确定句末为独立分词结构之前,也必须进行逻辑判断。)

a. After taking off, we were flying low over the city and slowly gaining height, when the plane suddenly turned round and flew back to the airport. 我们起飞后就在城市上空作低空飞行,并慢慢升高,那时飞机突然掉转头来,飞回机场。(句中 when 作 and then 讲,when 前多半打逗号,引出并列分句,而不是引出时间状语从句。)

b. The leader of the party was examining the soil near the entrance to the cave when the machine showed that there was noble metal ore under the ground. 领队在靠近洞口处检查土壤时,机器显示地下有贵重金属矿。(注意句中 when 用法与上句相同,只是并列连词 when 前面无逗号。无逗号时,这种 when 的用法就更需要根据上下文进行逻辑判断。)

Bats are active in summer from dusk to just before sunrise, when they retire to sleep. 蝙蝠夏天的活动时间是黄昏到日出,日出后就休息睡觉。(句中 when 不可以看为引出时间状语从句,也不可看为 when 作 and then 讲,而应看为说明 sunrise 的。但这种选择决定于对蝙蝠有关常识的了解,否则难于进行逻辑判断. )

五、关于动词用法上的逻辑判断

这里不涉及动词的固定搭配问题。这里讨论的是有关动词本身在用法上的一些易混淆的问题,并结合具体例子讲述逻辑判断。

If he made full use of his time, he is more likely to finish the research two months ahead of time. 如果他当初充分利用了时间,那么他大有可能提前两个月完成这项研究。(有人总感到从句用的是虚拟语气,从而提出后面主句也改用虚拟语气。其实这里从句中的 made 是陈述语气,表示过去一般时。这是真实条件从句,后面主句谓语表示将来时含义。根据主从句句义来看,译文是合乎逻辑的。)

a. Einstein’s simple formula states that the energy to be obtained equals the mass (or weight). Of the substance being converted, time the velocity of light, times the velocity light. 爱因斯坦的简单公式表明,要得到的能量等于正在转化的物质的质量(或重量)乘以光速的平方。(即指:E=MC2. 这里只能根据超语言因素即物理学知识来判断 being converted 作 the substance 的后置定语,而不是这两者构成复合结构。)

b. The process of one substance mixing with another is called diffusion. 一种物质同另一种物质混合的过程叫做扩散。(句中 mixing with another 作前面 one substance 的后置定语,还是和 one substance 一起构成复合结构,只能根据超语言知识进行逻辑判断,因为语法已无能为力。这里判别为复合结构是合乎逻辑的。)

In an experiment a computer was made to have the ability to answer any questions about its small universe, first having been taught, of course, everything there was to know about its small universe. 在实验中,当然是先教会计算机熟悉有关的“小天地”的内容,才能使计算机具备回答该“小天地”范围内的任何问题。(句中 first having been taught 是现在分词短语作状语,everything 是 taught 的宾语,there was 是定语从句,前面省略关系代词 that, 修饰 everything. 不定式 to know… 也作它的定语。所有这一切分析都要以句意符合逻辑作为依据。)

Columbus was unwilling to return having failed, but he could not force his men to continue the voyage. Having agreed to turn back if no land was sighted in three days, he had the good fortune to see an island on October 12, the thirty-third day at sea. 哥伦布不愿以失败者身份回去,但他无法迫使他的船员继续航行。他同意:如果三天内见不到陆地就返航,但他运气很好,于10月12日即海上航行的第三十三天见到了一个岛。(第一句中的现在分词短语 having failed 应理解为说明不定式 to return,因此不能译为:※哥伦布失败后就不愿回去了。第二句的条件状语从句 if no land… 也应理解为只与不定式 to turn back 有关,而不是和 Having agreed 有关。上述这些分析只能靠逻辑判别来确定。)

六、有时是否并列关系,是否有什么省略成份,也要靠逻辑判断

We think it is often possible to obtain a more pure precipitate by redissolving the precipitate, having washed it as free as possible from soluble impurities, and reprecipitation. 我们认为,在尽量洗去沉淀物中可溶性的杂质以后,再次溶解沉淀物并进行再次沉淀,常能获得较纯的沉淀物。(句中 by 后三个-ing短语不全都是并列关系,只有 redissolving and reprecipitation 这两个动名词是真正的并列关系,其中 having washed… 作第一个 -ing 的时间状语。这里语法分析)和逻辑判断必须同时进行,并且相辅相成,但是最后必须取符合逻辑的句义为准。)

Acids react with all of the common metals, although in industry certain mixtures of metals or alloys are said to have been developed that will resist the action of acids. 酸能和所有这些普通金属起反应,可是在工业中,据说某些能耐酸的金属混合物即合金已研制出来了。(有人曾将 or 理解为 metals 和 alloys 的连词作“或者”讲。若懂得些合金方面的知识,不难确定 or 作“也就是”讲,引出同位语 alloys,说明前面的词组 certain mixtures of metals。)

The logarithm of 10 is 1; of 100, 2; of 0.001, -3. 10的对数等于1;100 的对数等于2; 0.001 的对数等于 —3。(本句残缺不全,显然有省略成分。必须用数学知识来验证译文,以免发生误差。)

七、新闻标题要求简练醒目,翻译时更需注意逻辑判断。参阅第 145 节第十八项

八、报刊上的广告和手册之类的工具书中的注释性文字省略成分较多,阅读或翻译时也必须多加进行逻辑判別. 参阅第 145 节第十九项

九、遇到语序不正常的句子,不仅需要语法分析,更需逻辑判断,并根据逻辑判断来验证语法分析是否正确。参阅第 148 节、十二、例 3

十、遇到易混淆的句子,必须利用逻辑判断来领会原文

Days and nights on the moon are very long. One day on the moon is as long as two weeks on the earth. 月球上的白昼黑夜都很长,月球上的一个白昼等于地球上的两周之久。(有人误译为“……月球上的一天等于地球上的两周. 问题出在没有注意上下文中提到的 Days and nights 的连用,因为这里 day 已不是“天”、“日”的概念,而只是作“白昼”讲。此外,如果知道一些天文学的知识或查一下有关文献,也就不会译错。)

When more than nine tenths of the sky is cloud-covered with blue sky still to be seen. the term "overcast with breaks" finds its use. 当十分之九以上的天空被云覆盖,但蓝天仍可见到时,就可使用“阴有云隙”这个术语。(一般来说,be covered 后接介词 with,但本句 with 短语却并非 be covered 的固有搭配。根据逻辑判断,be covered 要求的 with 短语已由 cloud 加连字符“-”来代替。句中出现的 with 短语表示陪衬,still to be seen 可理解为作 blue sky 的宾语补语。只有既符合语法分析又符合逻辑的句意才可被认为是正确的。)

The so-called friendship between the two governments was more apparent than true. 当时那两个政府之间的友谊是表面的,而并非真诚的。(曾有人将 apparent 译为“明显的”,但汉语中它不能和“真诚的”形成对比。只有将 apparent 理解为“表面的”,才能和“真诚的”形成对比。)

十一、利用逻辑分析来判断译文是否准确,甚至可检验原文有否谬误或排印错误

World governments should conduct serious campaigns against smoking. 世界各国政府认真开展反对吸烟运动。(曾有人译为“世界政府机构……”或“国际机构……”。若对译文进行逻辑分析,就可避免这种错误。)

Restrictions on cigarette advertisements, plus health warnings on packages and bans on public smoking in certain places such as theaters, cinemas and restaurants, are the most popular tools used by nations in support of non smokers or in curbing smoking. 限制香烟广告,每包香烟上加印“有害健康”的警告,以及禁止诸如影剧院和餐馆等某些公共场所吸烟,这些都是许多国家用以支持不吸烟者和控制吸烟的最常用的办法。(曾有人将 health warnings 译为“健康警告”。若稍对译文进行逻辑分析,这个错误就可避免。)

Travelling on a hovercraft is not only such faster, but also smoother than ordinary boats. (译文在下段)靠逻辑分析就可看出:本句中 travelling 和 ordinary boats 无法比较;若在 than 后加 on,则就变为 than 后省略了travelling,就可理解为乘坐两种不同的交通工具进行比较。本句译文为:“坐气垫船不仅比坐普通船快得多,而且也较为平稳”。由此可见,有时凭逻辑分析还可发现原文谬误或排印错误。

Table of Contents

介绍

A(或 An)和 The 两种冠词的基本含义及其使用方法

“A(或数字)+量词+of+被修饰的名词”及其类似结构

About 兼带 Around 和 Round 的用法分类及注意事项

Above用法及其分类理解

Across 的用法和按英语思维的理解

After 的搭配用法及注意事项

Against 用法及注意事项

Ahead 的用法特点

All 的主要用法

Alone 的用法和注意点

Along 的用法以及对其常用短语的理解

And 用法中几个值得注意的问题

Any 和 Some的用法及其差异

Apart 及 Apart From 的用法

As 的主要用法和判别

At 的基本含义及其搭配用法分类

Away 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Back 的搭配及其引申用法的理解

Be 的九种基本用法和判别

Because, Because of, Due to, Owing to, Thanks to 和 For 表示原因用法比较

Before 用法和几个在意义上不要混淆的问题

Behind 的用法及其常用短语

Being 的用法和注意点

Below 的用法

Beneath 和 Under, Below 用法比较

Beside 和 Besides的用法及注意事项

Between 和 Among 的用法辨异

Beyond 的搭配用法及理解

Both 的用法及注意点

But 及其搭配关系的用法和判别

By 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Can 的主要用法

Could 的主要用法

Do 的用法判别

Down 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Each 和 Every 的用法

-ed 结尾的或不规则动词的过去分词用法和判别

Either 和 Either… or 的用法

Enough 的用法

Ever 的用法

-ever 构成的合成词的用法和判别 Whoever, Whichever, Whatever, Whenever, Wherever, However

Except 和介词 But 用法比较

First 的用法

For 的用法及其短语分类理解

Forth 的搭配用法

Forward(s) 的搭配用法

From 的搭配用法及其短语分类理解

Hardly 和 Scarcely 的用法及注意点

Have (或 Has) 的用法

How, How many, How much, How long, How far,How fast, How often 等用法

If 的用法

In 和 Into 的用法及其短语分类理解

inf. 动词不定式的用法和判别

-ing 现在分词和动名词的用法和判别

Inside 和 Outside 的用法

Instead of和 In place of 的用法

It 的用法和判别

Least(包括作“最不…”讲)的用法

Less(包括作“较不…”讲)的用法

Lest, In case 和 For fear that 引出从句的用法

Like 的搭配用法

Little 和 A Little 以及 Few 和 A Few 用法差异

Many 和 Much 的用法

May 的主要用法

Might 的主要用法

More 以及形容词和副词比较级的用法及注意点

Most 以及形容词和副词最高级的用法和注意点

Must 的主要用法

名词或其短语作前置定语及其新发展—夹带介词短语的名词性词组作前置定语

Near 的用法

Need 和 Dare 的用法及注意点

Neither, Nor 和 Neither… nor… 的用法

Never 用法

No matter how (或 what, where, who 等)疑问词的用法

None, Nobody (或 No one), Not one 和 Nothing 用法异同

Not 和 No 用法差别

Of 的主要用法及其固定短语的分类理解

Off 的用法及其固定短语的分类理解和判断

On 和 Upon 的用法及其固定短语的分类理解和判断

Once 的用法

One 和 Ones 的用法

Or, Or Else, Else 的用法

Other 和 Another 用法差异

Other than 的用法

Otherwise 用法

Ought 的用法

Out 及 Out of 的各自搭配用法的理解和判断

Over 及其搭配用法分类理解和判断

代词有时出现在所代的名词之前

形容词型物主代词和名词型物主代词的用法辨异

Provided (that) 和 Providing (that) 的用法和判别

Rather 和 Fairly 的用法差异(联系近义词 Quite, Pretty)

Rather than 的用法和注意点

Right 用法

’s 的用法

Should 用法

Since 的用法和判别

So 的主要用法

So that 和 so (或 Such)… that 引导从句的用法和判别

Soon, No sooner… than 和 As soon as 的用法

Spite(主要是 In spite of)用法

Still 的用法和注意点

That 和 Those 的基本用法和判别

“比较级 + than”的用法和注意点

There be 结构及 there exists 等相类似的句子

Though 和 Although 的用法和注意点

Through 及其搭配的动词短语用法和判断

Throughout 的搭配用法

Time (Times) 的用法和注意点

To 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Together 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Too 的多种用法和判别

Toward(s) 的搭配用法及其分类理解

"Used + 带 to 的不定式","be used + to + 名词" 和 "be used + 带 to

Under 的搭配用法及其分类理解

Until 和 Till 的用法和理解

Up 的用法及其动词短语的分类理解和判断

Way 的主要用法及注意点

What 的用法和判别

When 的用法和判别

Where 的用法和判断

Whether 的用法和判断

Which 的用法和判断

While 的基本用法及判别

Who 和 Whom 的用法

Whose 的用法

Why的用法

Will 的主要用法

With 的各种搭配用法及分类理解

Within 的搭配用法

Without 的搭配用法

Would 的用法

Yet 的用法

动词时态

被动态和几个值得注意的问题

句子的种类

句子成分 (Sentence Components)

谓语在形式上和主语协调的十四种情况

介词短语在句中的用法和判别

注意:“介词+介词短语、副词或形容词”结构

宾语补(足)语及注意点

主语补(足)语及注意点

条件和假设

虚拟语气的用法

省 略 (Ellipsis)

同位语及同位语从句的表示法和判别

插入语及插入句用法

倒装语序和成分分割

数字或数量大小、数的增减、倍数和分数表示法

语法—逻辑判断—正确理解